THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

A  STUDY  OF  ORIGINS 
AND  TENDENCIES 


BY 

FRANK  WEBSTER  SMITH,  PH.D. 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

JOHN  CALVIN  HANNA 

SUPERVISOR  OF  HIGH  SCHOOLS, 
STATE  OF  ILLINOIS. 


Iflew  H?orft 

STURGIS  &  WALTON 

COMPANY 

1916 


Copyright  1916 
By  STURGIS  &  WALTON  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  19 16 


o 


TO  MY  PARENTS 
HITHER   AND   YON. 


rr  rr  o  o  c» 
U  o  /*  ts  o> 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction ix 

Preface xvii 

Secondary  Education  in  Primitive  Times  i 

Secondary  Education  in  Primitive  Tribes  To-day    21 

Secondary  Training  in  Homer  and  Hesiod  ...     39 

Secondary  Education  in  Greece  —  Early  Historic 
Period 48 

Secondary  Education  in  Greece  —  Later  Historic 
Period 61 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

XIII 

XIV 

XV 

XVI 

XVII 

XVIII 


73 

99 
110 
129 


Secondary  Education  in  Plato  and  Aristotle  . 

Secondary  Education  in  Rome  —  Early  Period 

Secondary  Education  in  Rome  —  Later  Period 

Secondary  Education  in  Quintilian  and  Cicero 

Jesus,    Teacher  —  New   Principles   of   Education  164 

Secondary   Education    in    the    Early    Christian 
Centuries 184 

Secondary  Education  from  the  Sixth  Century  to 
the  Early  University  Period 193 

Secondary  Education    in   the   Early   University 
Period 213 

Foundations  of  a  New  Secondary  School    .     .      .  235 

Secondary  Education  in  the  Early  Renaissance  240 

Secondary  Education  in  the  Late  Renaissance  .  252 

Notable    Contributions    of    the   Renaissance   to 
Secondary  Education  —  a  General  Summary   .  273 

Seventeenth-Eighteenth  Century  Movements  in 

Secondary  Education 285 

vii 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Secondary  Education  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 

—  General   History 293 

Secondary  Education  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 

—  Principles  and  Practice 3*4 

The  High   School  —  Development  of   Secondary 
Education  in  the  United  States 323 

A  Review  of  the  Evolution  of  Secondary  Educa- 
tion from  Different  View-Points 343 

The  High  School  of  the  Twentieth  Century  — 
Programs  of  Studies  and  Curricula     ....  359 

XXIV    The  High  School  of  the  Twentieth  Century  — 

Principles  and  Method 409 

The  High  School  of  the  Twentieth  Century  — 
Organization,  Equipment,  Administration  .      .  421 

Graphic  Summary Insert 

Bibliography 443 

Index 453 


Vlll 

CHAPTER 

XIX 
XX 

XXI 

XXII 

XXIII 


XXV 


INTRODUCTION 

The  high  school  is  coming  into  its  own.  Secondary  edu- 
cation has  begun  lately  to  assume  a  prominence  and  to  have 
a  recognized  importance  such  as  would  be  suggested  by  the 
priority  of  its  development. 

As  the  painstaking  historical  survey  in  the  following  chap- 
ters makes  clear,  formal  secondary  education  was  developed 
ages  before  any  need  for  organized  elementary  education 
arose.  The  latter  came  later  as  a  necessity  following  the 
development  of  written  language.  Such  a  historical  study 
of  secondary  education  is  of  value  because  it  is  a  study 
of  a  great  development,  an  examination  of  secondary  edu- 
cation as  an  important  and  interesting  sociological  phenom- 
enon. It  is,  besides,  a  practical  investigation  of  the  varied 
applications  of  means  to  ends  that  have  been  developed  in 
each  of  the  epochs  of  secondary  education.  It  presents  a 
study  of  a  pivotal  institution  and  of  its  relations  to  different 
times  and  conditions. 

The  aim  toward  which  the  present  movement  in  educa- 
tion is  tending  is  universal  complete  education  within  the 
limits  of  the  public  school  period.  This  of  course  means 
that  the  number  of  high  schools  must  be  increased  many 
times,  and  these  high  schools,  in  order  to  meet  present  and 
future  social  conditions,  must  evolve  out  of  historic  educa- 
tion. 

The  present  book  may  well  serve  as  an  aid  in  studying 
this  great  movement  and  in  guiding  it  with  historic  judg- 
ment. To  study  a  problem  we  must  know  its  roots.  The 
study  thus  becomes  of  immediate  practical  value  to  every 
teacher  and  parent  of  adolescents.  Through  its  suggestive- 
ness  we  may  be  guided  in  recognizing  the  right  aims  of  high 
school  training,  in  harmonizing  practice  with  sound  theory, 

and  in  adapting  curriculum  making,  method,  and  teacher- 

ix 


x  INTRODUCTION 

training  to  the  actual  purposes  of  the  school  that  the  com- 
munity establishes  and  maintains  for  its  youth. 

It  seems  a  work  of  supererogation  to  insist  upon  this 
clearness  of  view  and  this  honesty  and  intelligence  of  effort, 
but  any  examination  of  the  high  schools  of  the  country  in 
their  actual  work  will  reveal  in  many  places  a  woeful  lack 
of  clear  vision  and  of  honest,  intelligent  effort. 

There  are  two  great  changes  that  have  come  about  in  the 
social  life  of  the  United  States  within  the  last  fifty  years  — 
one  in  our  population,  the  other  in  our  education.  At  first 
these  two  changes  may  seem  to  be  wholly  unrelated,  and 
when  one  attempts  to  account  for  them  historically  he  finds 
himself  wandering  far  a-field  and  traveling  apparently  now 
in  one  direction,  then  in  another. 

These  are  the  two  changes:  —  In  1867  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  made  the  statement,  in  answer 
to  an  inquiry,  that  there  were  then  about  forty  public  high 
schools  in  this  country.  In  19 15  there  were  eleven  thou- 
sand five  hundred  public  high  schools.  This  is  an  increase 
of  nearly  thirty  thousand  per  cent.  The  increase  in  popula- 
tion in  that  time  was  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent. 
In  1867,  there  was  one  public  high  school  to  every  nine 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  of  the  population,  in  191 5  one 
public  high  school  to  every  eight  thousand  five  hundred. 

This  means  that  within  less  than  fifty  years  the  public 
high  school  idea  has  become  firmly  established  in  this  coun- 
try. At  the  earlier  date  only  a  small  proportion  of  the 
population  believed  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  State  to 
furnish  free  secondary  education  to  the  boys  and  girls  of 
the  country.  In  the  minds  of  most  men  at  that  time,  public 
school  education  included  only  what  we  now  call  elementary 
education.  An  overwhelming  majority  of  the  voters  of  this 
country  in  1867  therefore  believed  that  the  State  had  per- 
formed its  full  duty  toward  the  rising  generation  when  it 
furnished  free  schooling  from  the  age  of  six  to  the  age  of 
fourteen.  Eight  years  was  the  highest  limit  of  the  average 
American's  conception  of  a  public  education. 

At  the  present  time,  with  an  investment  of  not  less  than 
two  hundred  million  dollars  in  public  high  school  buildings, 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

with  the  constant  employment  of  fifty-eight  thousand  high 
school  teachers  at  regular  salaries,  and  with  a  total  annual 
outlay,  on  high  school  education,  of  over  sixty  million  dol- 
lars raised  by  general  taxation,  we  may  fairly  conclude 
that  the  average  voter  believes  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
State  to  furnish  to  its  boys  and  girls  a  public  school  educa- 
tion that  includes  four  years  in  the  high  school, —  that  the 
public  school  should  open  its  doors  to  the  youth  of  the 
country  from  the  age  of  six  to  the  age  of  eighteen  or  twenty. 
Within  fifty  years  therefore  the  conception  held  by  the  peo- 
ple of  the  United  States  as  to  what  constitutes  a  public 
school  education  has  increased  till  the  standard  length  of  a 
boy's  or  girl's  schooling  at  the  State's  expense  has  risen  to 
twelve  years  instead  of  eight, —  a  fifty  per  cent,  expansion  of 
public  opinion  on  this  vital  matter.  This  is  one  change  that 
has  come,  and  it  is  a  most  significant  and  far-reaching  one. 

The  other  great  change  concerns  the  character  of  our 
population  and  is  equally  vital,  far-reaching,  and  significant, 
though  it  does  not  primarily  suggest  congratulation,  encour- 
agement, and  a  feeling  of  optimism. 

All  of  us  Americans  —  excepting  a  few  Indians  —  are 
immigrants  or  descendants  of  comparatively  recent  immi- 
grants. No  American  family  can  trace  an  American  abid- 
ing place  farther  back  than  a  dozen  generations  or  so.  All 
of  us  have  ancestors,  within  a  few  generations  back,  who 
were  born  "  in  the  old  country." 

And  the  particular  old  country  from  which  those  ances- 
tors came  we  can  usually  name  for  ourselves,  even  though, 
as  is  frequently  the  case,  we  cannot  give  the  Christian  name 
of  the  original  immigrant.  In  the  average  American  audi- 
ence of  fifty  years  ago, —  and  in  many  rural  districts  this 
is  still  the  case, —  a  speaker  could  look  his  audience  over 
and,  though  all  were  personally  strangers  to  him,  he  could 
name  the  list  of  countries  and  stocks  from  which  their  an- 
cestors came,  and  this  would  be  the  list :  England,  Ireland, 
Scotland,  Wales,  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium,  France,  Swit- 
zerland, Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden.  Those  twelve 
countries  included  the  old  homes  of  nine-tenths  of  the  fam- 
ilies of  America  in  1867.     Countries  and  peoples  differed 


xii  INTRODUCTION 

in  detail,  and  each  contributed  its  element  of  value  to  the 
"  melting  pot "  in  which  the  American  stock  was  being 
fused.  But  in  all  these  elements  of  population  there  was 
vastly  more  of  similarity  than  of  difference  in  the  essential 
things.  There  was  in  all  of  them  the  possibility  of  Ameri- 
canism ;  there  was  good,  sound,  healthy  race  stock  on  which 
could  be  grafted  the  ideas  and  the  ideals  that  together  make 
"  America."  There  was,  moreover,  in  all  of  them  a  devel- 
opment due  to  hundreds  of  years  of  race  training  through 
the  great  struggle  in  those  lands  toward  freedom  and  the 
ideals  which  go  to  make  up  Americanism,  and  consequently 
the  material  for  self-government  was  ready  for  the  great  ex- 
periment in  the  new  land.  The  remarkable  studies  by  Pro- 
fessor Edward  A.  Ross  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
published  in  the  Century  Magazine  under  the  title,  "  The 
Effect  of  Immigration  upon  Race  "  (and  since  printed  in 
book  form),  deal  with  this  matter  as  the  limits  set  by  this 
chapter  will  not  allow,  and  far  more  brilliantly  and  convinc- 
ingly than  can  be  done  by  the  present  writer. 

Immigration  has  increased  amazingly  since  that  period 
and  has  gone  on  with  little  interruption  until  temporarily 
stopped  by  the  present  war.  A  million  immigrants  a  year 
have  been  pouring  into  the  country  to  become  American 
citizens, —  an  addition  of  from  one  to  two  per  cent,  of  for- 
eigners to  the  total  population  every  year,  and  a  much  larger 
percentage  when  calculated  upon  the  basis  of  adult  male 
population. 

While  all  the  countries  named  above  are  represented  every 
year  in  the  tide  of  immigration,  their  actual  contributions, 
in  most  instances,  and  their  proportion  of  the  total  in  nearly 
every  instance,  have  decreased.  As  we  all  know,  this  is 
largely  owing  to  the  fact  that  streams  of  immigrants  have 
been  coming  in  larger  and  progressively  increasing  numbers 
from  countries  and  stocks  very  slightly  represented  in  our 
earlier  immigration.  Italians,  Austrians,  Magyars,  Bul- 
garians, Roumanians,  Russians,  Servians,  Slovaks,  Slove- 
nians, Ruthenians,  Croatians,  Bohemians,  Poles,  Lithua- 
nians, Finns,  Greeks,  Armenians,  Syrians,  Turks,  even 
Arabs  and  Hindoos, —  these  are  races  represented  increas- 


INTRODUCTION  xiii 

ingly,  and  some  of  them  in  very  large  numbers,  in  the  im- 
migration of  the  last  half  century. 

This  change  in  immigration  is  bound  to  have  a  tremen- 
dous effect  upon  the  character  of  the  American  race.  The 
serious  question  arises  what  the  effect  will  be  upon  Ameri- 
can ideals,  institutions,  and  customs. 

This  is  a  fair  question  and  one  that  is  not  to  be  construed 
as  a  reflection  upon  any  of  these  newer  Americans  or  the 
lands  from  which  they  come.  Just  as  there  are  manifest 
differences  between  the  stocks  that  came  from  the  twelve 
countries  in  the  first  list  named  above,  so  there  are  differ- 
ences between  the  peoples  of  the  second  list ;  and  an  honest 
and  impartial  examination  will  convince  the  student  that 
there  are  even  more  manifest  and  striking  differences  between 
the  immigrants  who  come  to  our  shores  from  these  latter 
eighteen  or  twenty  race  stocks  and  those  who  came  from 
the  others.  This  certainty  is  true  when  one  considers  their 
preparation,  historically  and  sociologically,  for  American 
citizenship  and  the  likelihood  that  they  will  assist  in  preserv- 
ing and  developing  the  ideals  whose  working  out  has  pro- 
duced what  we  call  "  America."  The  writer  believes  that 
such  a  judgment  will  receive  the  support  of  any  educated  and 
fair-minded  Italian  or  Russian  or  Pole  or  Greek  or  Magyar 
or  representative  of  any  other  people  who  has  studied  Amer- 
ican institutions.  At  the  same  time  each  new-comer  may 
point  out  and  emphasize,  as  he  should,  the  strong  points 
of  character  in  the  people  of  his  own  race  and  may  declare 
his  optimistic  belief  in  a  glorious  and  manifest  destiny  for 
the  new  American  that  shall  come  out  of  this  "  melting 
pot,"  and  with  this  optimism  and  this  faith  and  this  prophecy 
we  have  no  quarrel.  No  man  knoweth ;  the  future  is  on 
the  knees  of  the  gods.  We  are  learning  more  and  more  to 
make  ourselves  the  intelligent  and  loyal  instruments  in  the 
hands  of  Providence  to  fulfill  the  best  of  prophecy.  "  Kis- 
met "  is  comfortable  as  a  solace  in  the  face  of  trouble,  but 
it  belongs  not  to  the  Occidental  mind.  Rather  do  we,  with 
reverence,  say :  "  Our  Father  worketh  hitherto,  and  we 
work." 

In  view  of  the  immense  mass  of  unprepared  material  that 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

is  coming  into  the  digestive  system  of  America,  in  view 
of  a  thousand  changes  in  immigration,  in  transportation, 
and  in  political,  sociological  and  economic  conditions,  in 
view  of  the  great  unrest  of  the  last  decade,  we  may,  with- 
out deserving  the  charge  of  "  little  Americanism,"  inquire 
whether  the  tremendous  change  in  the  character,  the  pre- 
paredness, and  the  moving  impulse  of  this  later  immigra- 
tion is  not  coming  about  so  fast  as  to  warn  us  of  a  real 
danger  to  free  institutions.  These  institutions  are  still  to 
undergo  their  greatest  test,  and  to  rouse  us  to  do  all  that 
may  be  done  to  meet  the  situation  and  to  solve  the  problem. 

In  those  last  three  words  is  the  real  challenge.  We  may 
talk  of  restricting  immigration,  but  it  is  not  likely  to  be  done, 
—  at  least  not  as  long  as  we  are  governed  by  political  par- 
ties —  unless,  indeed,  the  great  war  stirs  our  lawmakers 
more  than  seems  likely.  No  political  party  would  seriously 
advocate  any  such  restriction  and  attempt  to  make  good  such 
a  plank  in  its  platform,  for  the  reason,  narrow  but  potent, 
that  the  leaders  of  that  party  would  be  sure  to  lose  the  next 
election.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  great  American  compla- 
cency, the  feeling  that  Uncle  Sam  can  not  only  "  whip  all 
creation,"  but  can,  on  short  notice,  receive  all  comers  and 
transform  them  without  delay  into  intelligent,  loyal  Amer- 
ican citizens.  The  problem,  therefore,  is  to  do  this  very 
thing.  And  there  is  and  must  remain  one  chief  factor  in 
bringing  about  that  longed  for  result,  the  making  of  the 
"  oppressed  of  all  the  earth  "  into  good  American  stock  fit 
for  self-government.  It  is  the  public  school,  which,  in  or- 
der to  do  its  work  with  any  hope  of  achievement,  must  have 
all  the  wealth  that  can  be  spared  to  it,  all  the  wisdom  of  all 
the  wise  men,  and  all  the  devotion  of  all  of  us,  more  or  less 
wise  and  all  loyal. 

And  here  appears  the  connection  between  these  two  great 
changes  in  American  life  that  have  been  coming  about  si- 
multaneously within  the  last  half  century, —  simultaneously, 
but  seemingly  with  no  possible  relation  to  one  other, —  on 
the  one  hand  the  development  of  the  public  high  school  idea, 
the  increase  of  fifty  per  cent,  in  the  conception  of  the  aver- 
age American  citizen  as  to  what  he  owes  in  the  way  of 


INTRODUCTION  xv 

public  free  education  to  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  country; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  great  change  in  the  character  of  the 
prevalent  immigration,  with  the  possible  and  even  probable 
change  in  the  character  of  the  race  itself. 

If  it  be  noble  in  man  to  rethink  the  thoughts  of  God,  it 
may  be  right  to  conceive  Him  as  viewing  the  great,  new 
chosen  land  of  opportunity  and  experiment,  a  land  abound- 
ing in  resource  and  energy  and  sifted  stock,  and  deciding  in 
His  wisdom  to  give  to  that  land  two  gifts.  One  gift  is  in  the 
form  of  a  burden,  responsibility,  millions  of  peasants  from 
untrained  races,  from  unfamiliar  nooks  and  corners  of  the 
earth,  from  lands,  some  of  them,  with  little  of  achievement 
in  the  world's  history,  all  to  be  made  over  into  a  united 
people  fit  for  self-government.  The  other  gift  is  a  change 
in  American  hearts,  a  broadening  of  vision,  an  increase  in 
the  conception  of  what  an  education  means.  Let  us  say 
that  the  Almighty  has  given  us  the  raw  immigrant  with  one 
hand,  and,  with  the  other,  the  American  public  school  sys- 
tem, of  which  the  most  vital  part  is  the  American  High 
School,  a  creation  unique  in  all  educational  history,  and 
that  now  He  demands  of  us  the  wise  and  loyal  use  of  one 
gift  for  the  development  of  the  other. 

With  such  a  view,  we  cannot  study  with  too  great  care, 
too  great  open-mindedness,  or  too  great  devotion  the  de- 
velopment and  character  of  the  American  Public  High 
School. 

John  Calvin  Hanna, 
State  Supervisor  of  High  Schools,  Illinois. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

One  of  the  most  significant  phenomena  in  secondary  edu- 
cation of  the  present  decade  is  the  increase  in  literature  on 
the  High  School.  This  is  an  indication  that  the  most  char- 
acteristic school  in  our  system  is  beginning  to  receive  the 
attention  it  merits  as  the  determining  factor  in  American 
education.  All  the  current  books  however  approach  the 
matter  principally  from  the  hither  side.  Even  the  historical 
books,  most  of  them  devoted  to  noted  individual  schools, 
have  described  or  discussed  only  the  more  modern  phases 
of  secondary  education.  These  books  however  have  ren- 
dered a  distinct  service  on  the  historical  side  and  make  it 
unnecessary  to  take  up  the  more  recent  epochs  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  with  the  same  fulness  required  by  earlier 
epochs. 

We  need  to  approach  the  subject  from  both  the  near  and 
the  far  side.  The  present  book  attempts  to  study  the  high 
school  as  an  evolution.  The  author  has  placed  himself  in- 
side the  facts  and  conditions  of  each  epoch  and  has  tried 
to  interpret  its  spirit.  This  aids  us  materially  in  inter- 
preting the  present.  We  are  impressed  in  a  new  way  with 
the  principles  of  education,  and,  as  we  study  the  growth  of 
means  and  ends  and  the  modifications  that  have  been  made 
to  meet  religious,  social,  political,  and  industrial  conditions 
as  they  have  changed  at  different  periods  for  more  than 
thirty  centuries,  we  gain  new  view-points  for  studying  pres- 
ent problems  and  for  adapting  secondary  education  to  new 
times. 

The  author  hopes  he  has  written  a  book  that  cannot  be 
characterized  as  doctrinaire,  that  he  has  succeeded  in  getting 
into  the  life  of  the  secondary  school  and  thus  in  adding  to 
various  chapters  qualities  of  concreteness  and  reality.  In 
the  superintendence  of  public  schools,  in  teaching  and  super- 

xvii 


xviii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

vision  in  high  school  and  academy,  in  the  training  of  high 
school  teachers  in  normal  school  and  university  department 
of  education,  and  in  supervision  of  and  participation  in  the 
training  of  high  school  graduates  for  teaching  in  elementary 
schools,  he  has  had  opportunity  to  observe  the  work  of  the 
high  school  from  various  angles.  His  study  has  brought  him 
into  close  sympathy  with  the  education  of  the  adolescent  and 
has  given  him  larger  faith  in  its  possibilities  and  a  broad  in- 
terest enhanced  by  the  fact  that  his  own  boys  are  just  entering 
or  approaching  the  high  school  period. 

The  author  has  ajso  had  special  opportunities  to  make 
long  and  careful  investigation  of  historic  secondary  educa- 
tion from  many  and  varied  sources,  ancient  and  modern, 
primary  and  secondary. 

In  gathering  material  he  is  under  obligations  for  gener- 
ous responses  by  educators  in  all  parts  of  the  country  who 
have  furnished  him  with  their  latest  high  school  programs 
of  studies.  He  is  under  special  obligations  to  Mr.  John 
Calvin  Hanna,  Supervisor  of  High  Schools  of  the  State  of 
Illinois,  who  has  written  the  illuminating  introduction,  to 
Professor  William  Estabrook  Chancellor,  of  the  College  of 
Wooster,  who  has  read  the  manuscript  and  made  valuable 
suggestions,  and  to  Dr.  Charles  Hughes  Johnston,  of  the 
University  of  Illinois,  who  has  supplied  an  advance  copy 
of  the  new  terminology.  For  all  who  have  thus  assisted 
and  encouraged  him  the  author  here  records  his  warm  ap- 
preciation  and   thanks. 

Prospect,  Paterson,  N.  J., 

October  23,  1916. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

As  adolescence  is  the  central  and  determining  period  in  human 
development,  so  the  High  School  is  the  central  and  determin- 
ing school  in  our  system  of  education.  It  is  the  key  to  the 
future  development  of  the  nation. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  PRIMITIVE  TIMES 

The  point  of  view. —  If  we  are  to  have  a  comprehensive 
view  of  the  evolution  of  educational  forms,  we  must  take  as 
our  starting  point  the  ideas  of  tribes  that  nourished  beyond  the 
confines  of  recorded  history.  It  is  therefore  the  object  of  this 
first  chapter  to  discover  and  examine  the  acquisitions  of  these 
primitive  times  and  discover  the  means  of  transmitting  and  per- 
petuating them,  i.  e.,  the  provisions  for  education. 

It  is  difficult  to  gain  even  a  faint  conception  of  prehistoric 
life  and  thought.  If  we  can  forget  our  modern  modes  of 
thought  and  shut  our  eyes  to  our  surroundings,  we  may  hope 
in  some  degree  to  realize  the  position  of  primitive  peoples.  We 
must  get  rid  of  our  complexities,  of  our  tendency  to  pass  over 
steps  in  processes, —  to  eliminate  in  thought  parts  of  a  series 
and  bring  remote  and  near  together.  We  must  as  far  as  pos- 
sible place  ourselves  at  the  point  of  view  of  these  ancient  tribes, 
bearing  in  mind  that  life,  thought,  and  expression  were  very 
simple  and  moved  by  short  stages;  for  industrial  life,  social 
organization,  religious  conceptions  and  feelings,  and  mental 
and  physical  life  generally  were  just  beginning,  as  far  as  their 
evolution  in  the  human  family  is  concerned.  We  must  think 
even  more  simply  and  directly  than  do  the  plainest  of  modern 
men. 

Means  of  studying  primitive  times. —  There  is  no  highway 
for  reaching  prehistoric  times,  but  there  are  several  pathways. 
Again  there  is  no  body  of  definite  information  ready  made,  on 
which  we  may  lay  our  hands  after  indefinite  journeyings.  Yet 
the  people  of  these  primitive  times  have  left  embedded  in  the 
strata  of  civilization,  and  sometimes  in  the  soil  they  occupied, 
various  evidences  that,  through  inference  and  analogy,  may  be 

i 


2  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

used  to  make  out  a  fragmentary  story  of  their  lives.  Often 
some  piece  of  their  handiwork  comes  to  view  to  give  something 
more  tangible  as  to  their  thought  and  action.  In  addition  to 
this,  habits  of  thought,  customs,  ideals,  and  forms  and  formulas 
in  which  their  wisdom  was  condensed  to  make  its  transmission 
more  secure,  were  handed  on  indefinitely.  Some  of  them 
appear  in  faded  outline,  and  sometimes  in  bold  relief,  in  early 
historic  peoples  and  serve,  now  as  focusing  points  for  investiga- 
tion, and  again  as  guides  along  the  paths  to  prehistoric  times. 
Slowly,  with  unstinted  effort,  students  have  forced  their  way 
back  and  have  been  able  to  picture  in  general  outline  the  move- 
ments and  life  of  the  earliest  peoples,  to  tell  their  story,  and  to 
make  plain  their  ideas  and  modes  of  doing  things.1 

Organization  of  primitive  society. —  The  organization  of 
primitive  society  was  based  on  the  family.  The  family  grown 
large  —  the  ancient  clan  and  tribe  —  simply  continued  the 
characteristic  family  organization,  modifying  it  enough  to  adapt 
it  to  a  larger  and  more  complex  unit.  Each  family,  clan,  or 
tribe  was  an  end  in  itself,  an  exclusive  unit,  looking  on  all  out- 
side as  strangers,  and  virtually  as  enemies.  The  "  barbarian  " 
of  the  Greeks  and  the  "gentile"  of  the  Hebrews  are  relics  of 
this  old  organization  and  its  attendant  thought.  The  struggle 
of  patricians  and  plebeians  at  Rome  grew  out  of  the  same  tribal 
solidarity. 

The  bonds  of  union  of  this  primitive  society  were  blood  and 
religion.2  But  these  two  bonds  were  really  one,  as  they 
were  different  sides  of  the  same  central  force.  The  primitive 
family  unit  and  the  series  of  subordinate  units  bound  to  it,  as 
sons  gained  families  of  their  own,8  were  indissolubly  bound 
together  and  were  subject  to  the  many-sided  power  of  the 
father  of  the  central  family.  The  father  was  legislator,  magis- 
trate, priest, —  the  all-pervasive  governing  force  of  all.4 
They  looked  up  to  him  when  alive ;  they  worshipped  him  when 
dead.     He  controlled  their  lives  in  life.     In  death  he  still  pre- 

1  See  Appendix  I  for  a  more  specific  description  of  sources. 

2  De  Coulanges,  Ancient  City,  15,  16,  40-52,  174.  See  generally  Book 
I  and  Book  III :  1. 

8  Do.,   149,   153;  Von   Ihering,   Evolution   of  the  Aryan,  32  ff.     See 
Appendix  II,  11. 
4De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  naff.,  116,  149,  153,  301,  302. 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  3 

sided  over  them;  and  it  was  one  of  their  supreme  objects  to 
secure  his  favor.5  The  hearth  worship,  with  its  lares  and 
penates,  that  figured  so  prominently  in  historical  times,  had  its 
chief  significance  in  this  ancestor  worship.  The  family  in  this 
broader  sense  also  included  various  persons  who  were  depend- 
ents in  one  degree  or  another.  The  family  thus  constituted 
what  is  called  the  clan.  It  had  its  own  worship,  its  altar,  its 
tomb,  and  its  general  organization,  distinct  from  those  of  every 
other  clan.6  Altar  and  tomb  were  its  centers.  The  clan 
was  a  compact  and  forceful  group.  The  group  prescribed  and 
dominated;  the  individual  was  entirely  subordinate;  his  life 
was  the  life  of  the  group.7 

Religious  significance  of  acts. —  From  the  very  organization 
of  early  society  it  naturally  resulted  that  every  act  and  event 
had  its  religious  significance,  representing  either  the  favor  or 
the  displeasure  of  the  gods.8 

Law  an'  outgrowth  of  religion. —  Even  the  ordinary  rela- 
tions of  life,  finally  included  in  political  and  civil  law,  had  their 
ground  and  origin  in  the  universal  blood  relationships,  which, 
we  have  seen,  were  really  religious  ones.  The  law  was,  in  an 
important  sense,  an  outgrowth  of  religion.9 

BDe  Coulanges,  Ancient  City,  15,  16,  23,  24  ff.,  44,  49. 

6  Do.,  op.  cit.,  149-153. 

7  Do.,  49-52,  293-98,  301-302;  Appendix  11:8,  11. 

8  Thus  a  multitude  of  forms  and  rites  and  their  accompanying 
formulae  arose  to  meet  the  varied  acts  of  life,  and  to  secure  divine 
favor  or  ward  off  divine  displeasure.  Do.,  op.  cit.,  21  ff.,  23  ff.,  49, 
217  ff.,  223  ff. ;  Appendix  II :  8. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  state,  religion  became  differentiated  into  dif- 
ferent departments,  just  as  the  father's  power  separated  into  various 
functions  of  government,  each  presided  over  by  a  separate  functionary. 
Religion  still  dominated  the  whole  life,  however,  as  either  a  serious  or 
an  oppressive  influence  binding  closely  to  forms  and  ceremonies,  or  as 
a  joyful  bond  of  life. 

In  time  religious  influence  became  less  dominant  after  the  manner  of 
primitive  modes  and  types,  and  even  became,  at  certain  times  and 
places,  divorced  from  life  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  But  the  ideal 
still  was  that  it  should  infuse  life,  giving  it  meaning  and  supplying 
and  moulding  ideals,  though  this  infusion  was  entirely  different  in 
spirit,  form,  and  attitudes  frorh  the  earlier  type. 

To  family  religion  in  course  of  time  was  added  a  more  external  re- 
ligion —  worship  of  the  powers  of  nature.  The  Roman  came  also  to 
worship  various  deities  representing  abstract  ideas  that  had  special  in- 
fluence with  men  —  Virtus,  Fides,  etc. 

9  Do.,  op.  cit.,  248  ff. 


4  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

What  then  were  the  acquisitions  that  primitive  peoples,  under 
this  simple  and  impressive  organization,  accumulated  and  must 
hand  on? 

Acquisitions  to  be  transmitted,  i.  Social  and  polit- 
ical.—  From  their  organization  itself  social  and  political 
facts,  and  correlatively  social  and  political  forms,  suggested 
and  impressed  themselves.  Thence  came  tribal  rules  and  cus- 
toms. Eventually  laws  developed.  These  things,  with  the 
more  intimate  tribal  possessions, —  its  traditions,  its  rites,  its 
relations  and  interrelations,  its  social  feelings  and  bonds, — 
formed  an  important  body  of  knowledge  and  sentiments  to  be 
transmitted.10 

2.  Tribal  history. —  Tribal  and  national  history  was 
forming n  and  was  constantly  outgrowing  itself  or  modify- 
ing itself  through  race  amalgamations  and  confederacies,  and 
so  was  constantly  becoming  more  intricate. 

3.  Nature  facts. —  Again  primitive  man  was  face  to  face 
with  nature,  which  suggested  operations  necessary  for  his  liveli- 
hood and  guided  him  in  them.  As  he  cooperated  with  nature 
to  supply  the  needs  of  existence,  various  industrial  facts  and 
processes  drew  his  attention  and  were  impressed  on  his 
mind.12  As  peoples  and  experience  grew,  the  field  of 
knowledge  grew  correspondingly.  Discoveries  multiplied,  and 
crude  inventions  suggested  themselves.  To  simple  nature- 
knowledge  was  in  time  added  more  complex  and  scientific 
knowledge.  These  acquisitions  were  not  understood,  but  were 
grasped  in  a  merely  external  and  practical  way.  They  were 
however  vital  and  were  prized  accordingly. 

4.  Religious  facts. —  These  classes  of  facts  and  relations 

10  Hewitt,  Ruling  Races  of  Prehistoric  Times,  II :  vii-xv,  and  preface 
generally,  1,  2,  87,  88,  et  passim.  De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  149-153,  154-158, 
167-176,  248  ff.,  301-2;  Vedic  Hymns,  Mandalas  I,  114;  VII,  56;  X,  78; 
Zend  Avesta,  Fargard  4;  Seebohm,  Tribal  System  of  Wales,  64,  71,  87. 
The  last  author's  English  Village  Community  will  also  be  interesting  as 
indicating  the  strength  of  early  customs  and  their  relation  to  tribal  integ- 
rity. Though  referring  to  a  much  later  time  than  the  one  we  are  con- 
sidering they  illustrate  in  a  general  way  the  points  here  made. 

11  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:  xiv,  78-83;  II:  vii-xv,  306;  Appendix  II:  4. 

12  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:  xi,  7,  64;  II:  vii-xv,  1,  2;  Vedic  Hymns,  Man. 
I:  43,  165,  168;  V:  54,  58,  61,  etc.;  Zend  Avesta,  Fargards  III,  VII; 
Appendix  II :  3,  7. 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  5 

had  to  do  with  the  visible.  But  primitive  man  was  also  face 
to  face  with  forces  that  he  could  not  see,  but  could  merely 
feel; —  with  mystery,  with  spirit  life,  which  we  characterize  as 
fetishistic.  The  relations  and  feelings  thus  impressed,  added 
to  those  developed  by  family  organization,  were  his  religion. 
He  must  meet  them  in  appropriate  ways, —  by  acts  and  rites, 
by  formula  and  sacrifice,  by  sacred  dance,  by  symbol  and 
altar.13  Primitive  awe,  which  was  perhaps  the  starting 
point  on  this  side  of  life,  early  grew  into  these  simple  and  nat- 
ural forms.  The  dance  is  a  constant  element  in  primitive 
religion.  Here  was  rhythm  of  body.  On  the  other  hand 
appears  the  rhythm  of  language  in  the  hymn,14  which  was 
also  an  early  development.  Rhythm  impressed  and  attracted. 
In  fact  it  would  be  fair  to  say  that  rhythm  in  one  form  and 
another  is  one  of  the  most  fundamental  modes  of  expression 
and  meets  with  universal  response. 

5.  The  physical. —  The  physical  life15  also  expressed  it- 
self in  simple  and  natural  modes,  such  impulsive  and  instinctive 
modes  as  children  adopt.  Here  again  the  dance  played  a  part, 
and  games  are  as  old  as  man. 

6.  Art. —  Finally  a  crude  art  was  growing,  taking  the 
forms  of  symbols  and  rude  representations.  The  starting 
point  here  was  found  in  religious  forms,  as  indicated  by  what 
has  just  been  said.  Primitive  man  was  fond  of  the  symbolic, 
and  it  appears  again  and  again  in  line,  circle,  spiral,  and  rude 
figure.18  Art  grew  apace.  It  was  not  long,  measured  by 
developmental  epochs,  before  art  came  to  serve  practical  and 
esthetic  ideas  by  highly  artistic  forms.17 

7.  Tribal  institutions. —  In  connection  with  these  acqui- 
sitions there  grew  up  certain  organizations  and  institutions 
which  focussed  and  enforced  the  characteristic  knowledge  of 
the  community.  Here  came  in  religious  ceremonies  and  festiv- 
als, all  the  social  forms  in  which  the  social  units  expressed 

"Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:  x,  xiv,  xv,  78,  83;  II:  I,  2,  87,  88;  Appendix, 
8,  10;  Vedic  Hymns,  Man.  I:  165,  etc.;  VII:  46;  VIII:  7',  Zend  Avesta, 
Fargards  III,  VII,  XIV. 

14  De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  49 ;  Vedic  Hymns,  passim. 

"Do.,   Man.,  V:54-     14;   V:s8;   VIII:  20. 

i«  Do.,  Man.,  I:  134;  V:  53,  54,  60;  VI:  66, 

17  Ripley,  Races  of  Europe,  486  ff. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


themselves,  and  all  official  programs  connected  with  social  and 
political  organization.18 

Primitive  education. —  Thus  primitive  man  slowly  accum- 
ulated a  body  of  knowledge,  beliefs,  and  forms.  They  were 
tested  and  approved  by  practical  use,  or  enforced  by  instinct 
and  the  impressiveness  and  mystery  of  his  surroundings, 
according  as  the  point  of  view  was  that  of  landholding,  liveli- 
hood and  community  existence,  or  that  of  the  impingement  of 
the  spirit  world.  His  experiences,  as  he  faced  the  conditions 
of  survival  and  progress,  were  intense,  impressed  by  various 
labors  and  discomforts  and  by  the  joys  of  conquest  that  were 
involved  in  pioneering  the  way  to  guiding-facts  of  life.  What 
he  had  gained  was  naturally  held  with  great  tenacity  and  per- 
petuated with  great  care.     Its  transmission  was  education. 

Transmission-forms.  The  myth. —  The  form  which  some 
of  the  most  valued  parts  of  this  knowledge  took  was  determined 
by  primitive  man's  attitude  toward  the  physical  world.  Nature 
appeared  to  him  to  be  full  of  life,  full  of  marvels.  It  thus 
inspired  awe  and  superstition  and  confronted  him  with  spirit 
everywhere.  As  he  had  constant  dealings  with  these  unseen 
and  impressive  forces,  he  must  express  himself  about  them,  and 
he  naturally  spoke  of  them  in  terms  of  life.  He  readily  per- 
sonified nature.  Very  early  began  a  kind  of  folk-lore,  which 
with  us  goes  under  the  name  of  myth  or  legend  but  was  serious 
fact  to  the  inventors.  Primitive  ideas  were  naturally  concrete 
and  picturesque,  for  they  followed  primitive  impulses.  The 
myth  was  the  natural  form  of  expression,  as  natural  for  them 
as  the  exactness  of  narrative  is  for  us,  and  it  embodied  truth 
for  them  as  fully  as  our  soberer  narrations  do  for  us.  There 
was  no  self-deception,  and  no  attempt  to  deceive  others, —  at 
least  on  the  part  of  the  masses  who  perpetuated  the  myth. 

Growth  of  myth. —  We  may  trace  the  growth  of  myth, 
which  in  an  important  sense,  as  we  have,  seen,  was  ancient  his- 

18  As  to  the  matter  of  primitive  acquisitions  generally  see  Hall,  Old- 
est Civ.  of  Greece ;  Ridgeway,  Early  Age  of  Greece ;  Greenidge,  Roman 
Pub.  Life,  (Chap,  i,  sections  i,  3,  4,  5)  ;  Seebohm,  The  tribal  Sys.  of 
Wales,  64,  71,  87 ;  Barton,  Semitic  Origins,  80  ff.,  95,  98,  3M-I5,  3*7,  et  al. 
See  also  various  references  in  Vedic  Hymns  and  Zend  Ayesta.  The 
various  references  will  show  something  of  the  scope  of  acquisitions  and 
various  details.    We  are  here  chiefly  concerned  only  with  the  general. 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  7 

tory,  from  the  simple  nature  tale,  through  tribal  and  national 
tales,  to  the  individual  hero-tales  of  the  Aryans,19  with  their 
infinite  crossings  and  transfusions.  In  the  development  of  this 
form  of  thought  and  expression  special  conservators  of  national 
myths  arose,  forming  groups  or  classes,  who,  as  our  refer- 
ences show,  were  both  directly  and  indirectly  teachers.20  Again 
special  laws  and  forms  of  composition  were  developed  to  insure 
regularity  and  exactness.21 

Hero-tales — Ballads. —  Some  of  the  most  interesting  ex- 
amples of  this  class  of  folk-lore  are  the  rhythmic  tales  that 
describe  the  deeds  of  heroes  and  heroic  tribes  and  nations.22 
They  were  songs  and  ballads,  which  were  natural  means  of  oral 
transmission,  appealing  to  fundamental  instincts.  We  may 
trace  the  growth  of  ballad  literature  from  simple  form  to  grow- 
ing epic.  In  connection  with  the  ballad  we  find  the  rhapsodist 
who  developed  this  powerful  instrument  of  information  and 
education  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  and  spread  ballad-lore 
assiduously.  There  were  schools  of  rhapsodists  to  foster  and 
develop  this  form  of  transmission. 

Proverbs,  etc. —  Along  with  the  myth-growth  various  bits 
of  practical  wisdom  were  taking  the  form  of  adage  and  proverb 
that  not  only  secured  conciseness  and  the  verbal  exactness 
characteristic  of  the  oral  transmission  of  specially  important 
facts  in  primitive  times,  but  attracted  attention  and  aided 
memory. 

Thus  in  connection  with  the  various  interests  and  rela- 
tions of  clan  life  and  the  life  which  grew  out  of  it  there 
grew  up  a  large  body  of  folk-lore, —  hero-tales,  tales  of  national 
exploits  and  movements,  songs  and  hymns,  proverbs  and 
maxims,  formulas  (religious  and  legal,  or  better  religio-legal), 
and  religious  calendars,  all  of  which  were  to  become  the  posses- 
sion of  the  true  clansman  or  tribesman.23 

"Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:  xi,  xiv,  7,  76-83,  86,  519,  521  ff.,  539 #•>  556 ff. ; 
II:  vii-xv,  89  ff.,  306;  Appendix  II:  3,  4,  7. 

20  Story  tellers,  etc.,  in  different  nations. 

21  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:xi,  xiv,  xv,  81;  II:  vii-xv,  306;  Appendix  II: 

"3       A       *7 

22  Hero  tales  were  a  later  development  than  tales  of  national  ex- 
ploits. 

23  De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  23,  24,  29-31,  49,  52,  210,  223,  226,  248; 
Vedic  Hymns,  Man.  VII :  56;  V:  59,  et  ol.;  Midler's  Preface  to  first  ed. 


8  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Relics  of  this  folklore,  particularly  the  ballad  and  the  epic. 

—  Many  fragments  of  this  folk-lore  have  come  down  to  us, 
sometimes  with  various  accretions  gathered  through  the  ages, 
sometimes  embedded  in  larger  and  more  modern  creations, 
sometimes  transformed,  but  sometimes  again  with  little  or  no 
change  or  obscuration.  Vedic  hymns,  the  Zend  Avesta,  the 
XII  Tables,  and  the  Laws  of  Manu  give  us  valuable  informa- 
tion as  to  the  thought  and  ideals  of  remote  ages.  Particularly 
interesting  here  are  the  great  national  epics  that  have  grown 
out  of  the  wealth  of  ballad  literature  of  still  earlier  ages,  when 
the  ballad  was  the  natural  mode  of  literary  expression.  Thus 
we  have  the  Ramayana  and  Mahabharata  of  India,  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey  of  Greece,  and  later  epics  giving  corresponding 
revelations  of  later  peoples, —  the  Shah  Nameh  of  Persia,  the 
Kalevala  of  the  Finns,  the  Niebelungenlied  and  Beowulf  of 
the  Teutons,  and  the  French  Song  of  Roland.  These  epics 
not  only  give  us  insight  into  the  life  of  the  time,  but  they  sug- 
gest one  of  the  most  powerful  educational  forces. 

Forms  of  education. —  We  now  see  something  of  the  en- 
vironment of  the  prehistoric  boy.  His  training,  whether  nat- 
ural or  artificial,  consisted  in  giving  him  power  over  this 
environment  through  possession  of  the  knowledge-acquisitions 
of  his  race  and  through  practice.  What  particularly  interests 
us  here,  however,  is  the  special  form  that  this  training  took. 
Here  we  are  met  by  three  typical  questions :  —  What  was  the 
end  in  view?  How  may  we  formulate  the  curriculum  for  the 
sake  of  comparison  with  those  of  other  epochs?  What  was 
the  method  of  training?  The  brief  sketch  which  is  here  given, 
the  marginal  references,  and  the  illustrations  in  the  appendix 
will  give  some  answer  to  these  questions.  It  is  true  that  the 
use  of  these  modern  terms,  end,  curriculum,  method,  may  seem 
anachronous,  but  rudiments  of  the  ideas  which  they  represent 
are  found  in  primitive  times.  More  than  this,  it  would  seem 
that  these  early  peoples  had  quite  as  clear  an  idea  of  these 
things  as  we  have. 

Ideal  and  aim. —  The  ideal  in  primitive  education,  as  in  all 

of  Vedic  Hymns  CXI;  Zend  Avesta,  Fargards  I,  II,  etc.;  Hewitt, 
op.  cit.,  I:  x,  xiv,  xv,  7,  63,  76,  78 ff.,  Ill,  54©,  541,  etc.;  II:  vn-xv,  I,  2, 
89  ff;  Appendix  II:  3,  4,  8,  10,  etc. 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  9 

education,  was  a  reflex  of  life,  but  without  the  vital  force 
which  projected  life  into  a  fuller  future.  The  social  unit  was 
a  powerful  one,  and  impressed  itself  and  its  ideas  on  the  indi- 
vidual who  had  little  power  of  initiative,  little  power  to  reject, 
to  add,  to  carry  forward.24  The  tribe  was  everything,  the  indi- 
vidual nothing,  absorbed  by  the  overshadowing  organization 
that  alone  had  significance.  "  The  dewdrop  slips  into  the 
shining  sea, "  or  rather  into  the  sea,  for  destiny  was  not  ideal- 
ized. Under  these  circumstances  the  possessions  of  the  race 
were  given  over,  immutable,  to  the  individual.  He  must  accept 
them  exactly.  Every  syllable,  every  detail,  was  essential. 
Nothing  that  the  race  had  wrought  must  slip.  The  ideal  was 
then  emphatically  in  the  present.  Power  to  idealize  and  gen- 
eralize had  not  yet  come.  Knowledge  was  empirical.  Men 
dealt  with  unrelated  details  rather  than  an  organized  body  of 
facts.  The  aim  was  to  conserve  the  tribe  and  all  it  stood  for. 
The  race  must  progress  en  masse,  so  to  speak,  with  painfully 
slow  progress.  The  lines  were  evidently  clearly  drawn,  the 
limits  clearly  defined.  Primitive  man  was  thus  the  most  con- 
servative of  beirigs.  Opportunities  to  modify  and  advance 
ideals  were  few  and  perhaps  depended  chiefly  on  cataclysmic 
experiences  of  conquest  and  amalgamation.  Progress  under 
these  conditions  would  be  an  accident,  a  chance  discovery,  not 
an  organized  force  based  on  active  individual  effort.  Society 
was  static,  not  dynamic.  Such  was  the  ideal,  and  the  educa- 
tional aim  accorded  with  it. 

Curriculum. —  When  we  come  to  analyze  education  and 
determine  what  we  may  well  call  the  curriculum,  we  may  make 
some  such  outline  as  the  following: 

1.  Industrial  facts :  —  Simple  and  primitive  occupations.  Practi- 
cal facts  gained  through  experience  and  treasured  by  older  men 
(embodied  in  proverbs,  etc.). 

2.  Social  and  political  facts:  —  Facts  and  inheritances  (customs, 
beliefs,  etc.)  as  to  organization  of  family,  tribe,  etc.  Simple  civic 
arrangements  and  regulations  of  community  life. 

3.  Religious  facts:  —  General  religious  facts  (animistic)  — Fam- 
ily religion  (ancestor-worship).  All  characterstic  religious  cere- 
monies and  ritual.  Religion  an  all  pervasive  force,  inspiring  joy, 
sadness,   awe,   fear. 

24  De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  293 ;  Appendix  II :  12. 


io  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

4.  Folk-lore :  —  Songs,  ballads,  tales  or  stories,  from  simple 
nature  story,  through  race-story,  to  individual  hero  tales  (myth  or 
legend  a  modern  name  for  these).  Symbolical  language  sometimes 
used.     The  rhythmic  element  here  should  be  noticed  especially. 

5.  Art:  —  Rude  representations  of  objects  and  symbols  of  wor- 
ship. Devices  on  the  same.  Stone-circles,  altars,  etc.,  on  sacred 
grounds  carefully  marked  out  for  ceremonies. 

6.  Number:  —  Simple  concrete  facts  (treated  more  fully  in 
Chapter  II). 

7.  Nature  facts :  —  Much  practical  knowledge  accumulated  by 
the  race  and  handed  on  with  great  accuracy  and  care. 

8.  Physical  facts :  —  Dances ;  physical  training  incident  to  com- 
mon life. 

Method. —  As  to  method,  in  an  age  when  formal  schools 
did  not  exist  the  means  of  gaining  power  over  one's  environ- 
ment were  the  natural  ones  that  lay  open  to  all, —  observation, 
imitation,  play,  participation  (or  practice).  In  this  connection 
it  should  be  noted  that  much  of  the  folk-lore  to  which  reference 
has  been  made  was  in  rhythmic  form  that  appeals  to  one  of  the 
most  fundamental  feelings,  so  fundamental  that  one  may  call 
it  an  instinct.  Rhythm  thus  stimulates  attention  and  aids 
memory.  As  a  considerable  part  of  the  acquisitions  of  the 
community  was  thus  included  in  the  folk-lore,  rhythmic  inherit- 
ances naturally  became  most  powerful  educational  material, 
and  rhythm  became  a  part  of  method.  Again  the  tribal  rites 
and  festivals  and  the  folk-lore  recitals  connected  with  them 
impressed  ritual  and  history.  Equally  important  as  a  means  of 
instruction  were  the  exhibitions  given  by  the  wandering  bards 
who  were  characteristic  of  later  prehistoric  times  and  instructed 
while  they  delighted,  and  largely  because  they  delighted,  by 
rhythmic  tales  of  national  or  individual  prowess. 

Rote  learning. —  But  there  was  another  element  of  early 
method  that  needs  notice.  A  part  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
community  was  regarded  as  more  vital  than  the  rest.  It  had 
cost  much.  It  must  be  condensed  into  special  forms  and  handed 
on  without  alteration.26  There  was  a  taboo  against  any  change. 
This  part  of  race  inheritance  sometimes  called  for  special 
secrecy.    It  was  deposited  in  symbolic  characters,  so  that  a  spe- 

25  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I :  x,  xi,  64,  74,  7^-^3,  134  ff- ',  II :  ix,  xi,  306.  See 
the  same  author's  Prim.  Trad.  Hist.,  1:97,  and  Appendix  11:3,  4- 
Material  for  the  training  of  adolescents  was  the  object  of  great  care. 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  n 

cial  language  arose  in  dealing  with  it.  Some  of  the  most  com- 
mon forms  it  assumed  were  the  proverb  and  myth,  which  were 
suited  to  the  habits  of  thought  of  the  people  and,  besides,  were 
very  convenient  means  of  handing  on  valuable  knowledge.  In 
imparting  this  kind  of  knowledge  the  simplest  and  most  natural 
method  for  an  unreflecting  people  was  rote-learning  —  mechan- 
ically committing  to  memory  with  no  natural  incentive  to  relieve 
it.  It  was  admirably  suited  to  forms  that  must  remain  inviol- 
able. The  descendants  of  rote  schools  and  rote  teachers  are 
found  to-day  in  the  native  schools  of  India  and  China.26 

Oral  and  written  language. —  How  early  oral  tradition  was 
reinforced  by  written  language  as  a  means  of  transmission  is 
not  known.  The  date  has  gradually  been  pushed  back,  and 
now  there  is  serious  question  whether  a  simple  written  language 
did  not  exist  as  early  as  the  stone  age.27  However  early  it  may 
have  been  developed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  was  taught  to 
young  boys  under  fifteen  or  eighteen,  because  at  first  that  which 
was  committed  to  writing  was  probably  the  most  sacred  knowl- 
edge of  the  tribe. 

Evolution  of  means  of  transmission. —  As  nations  and  ac- 
quisitions grew  the  process  of  transmission  became  more  exact- 
ing and  complex  and  more  formal.  We  may  roughly  outline 
its  growth  from  the  most  primitive  form  as  follows:  1°  A 
period  when  the  child  was  left  largely  to  himself  and  gained 
by  the  natural  means  first  noted  what  the  community  had  to 
offer.  2°  A  period  when  parents  exercised  more  care  and 
surveillance,  showing  and  guiding  and  more  consciously  taking 
children  into  their  life.  An  interesting  phase  of  this  is  seen  in 
the  matriarchal  Dravidian  village  community.  Hewitt  tells  of 
the  children  taught  by  the  elders  (uncles)  and  matrons  (aunts) 
of  the  tribe  28  the  rules  resulting  from  a  long  series  of  experi- 

26  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:  63. —  See  also  Appendix  II:  13.  Aside  from 
rote  teaching  that  perhaps  began  with  mere  boys  at  this  time,  as  it 
certainly  did  later,  there  was  no  formal  school.  Young  children  could 
gain  all  they  were  expected  to  learn  by  the  most  natural  and  in- 
formal means.  Formal  educational  institutions  for  children  arose  very 
late. 

27  Ripley,  op.  cit.,  486. 

28  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:  xi,  157;  II:  1,  2;  Appendix,  7.  In  each  com- 
munity, because  of  exogamous  marriage  customs,  all  men  and  women 
of  the  tribe  were  brothers  and  sisters. 


12  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

ments  or  experiences  forming  their  science  of  agriculture.  To 
prevent  error  in  transmission  the  rules  were  put  in  attractive 
form  and  "  carefully  repeated  by  each  generation  after  the 
teachers  till  indelibly  impressed."29  30  A  period  when  the 
community  made  its  elders  more  or  less  definitely  into  super- 
visors or  conservators  of  community  interests  as  related  to  the 
perpetuation  of  community  ideals.  Very  early,  "  in  Kushika 
times,  we  find  developed  the  system  of  education  of  which  the 
practical  physical  education  of  Persia  and  Sparta  were  relics.30 
Here  was  the  origin  of  common  meals.  Here  began  the  cus- 
tom of  regarding  the  child  as  belonging  to  the  state,  and  of 
bringing  the  new  born  child  to  the  elders  to  determine  whether 
he  was  to  be  reared  or  not." 31  40  A  period  of  guilds,  when 
society  was  more  fully  organized  industrially,  so  that  a  boy 
could  serve  apprenticeship  in  a  trade-guild.32  This  was  class 
education  that,  under  favorable  conditions,  developed  into  caste 
education,  as  under  the  Aryans  in  India.  Guild-education 
began  very  early.  50  A  period  where  society  had  grown  com- 
plex enough  to  set  aside  special  teachers,  or  groups  of  teachers, 
priests  or  laymen,  to  take  charge  of  the  education  of  children.33 
Secondary  training  distinctive. —  But  now  comes  the  ques- 
tion, was  there  any  distinction  as  to  age,  or  was  the  older  boy's 
education  simply  a  continuation  of  the  training  of  the  child  in 
the  various  lines  noted  ?  Here  we  come  upon  some  of  the  most 
interesting  points  connected  with  prehistoric  education.  All 
the  inheritances  and  acquisitions  to  which  reference  has  been 
made  were  not  alike.     Some  were  more  sacred  and  secret  than 

29  The  first  education  seems  to  have  been  practical,  and  naturally 
so.  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  1 :  63 ;  Appendix,  3 ;  Hewitt,  Primitive  Traditional 
History,  I:  65-66. 

80  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  1 :  63  ;  Appendix,  II :  5. 

31  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I:  297,  298,  410.  Here  again  was  the  origin  of 
the  marriage  customs  and  dual  government  of  Sparta,  showing  the 
close  connection  of  influential  elements  of  Spartan  population  with 
eastern  tribes. 

32  Do.  I:   111;  Appendix,   II:   5,  6. 

33  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  I :  xiv,  76.  Speaking  of  primitive  tribes  he  tells 
of  village  priest-teachers  and  women-prophetesses  who  became  the 
national  Asipu,  the  diviners,  who  not  only  were  repositories  of  the 
past,  but  were  also  augurs  and  foretellers  who  interpreted  the  flight 
of  birds  and  the  movements  of  their  entrails.  They  were  the  ancestors 
of  the  augurs  of  Rome  and  other  priestly  classes. 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  13 

others.  There  was  a  kind  of  esoteric  element  in  primitive 
knowledge  accumulations.  Some  facts  must  be  guarded  more 
carefully,  lest  tribal  well-being  be  broken.  Some  things  must 
be  absolutely  safeguarded  from  enemies,  i.  e.,  all  outside  the 
clan  or  tribe  circle,  lest  one  tribe  get  some  sinister  advantage 
over  another.  These  and  other  acquisitions  must  not  be  risked 
with  children.  They  required  an  age  which  could  be  not  only 
tenacious,  but  secretive.     This  is  the  adolescent  age. 

Evidence  of  distinctive  training  for  the  adolescent. — 
There  is  thus  strong  presumption  that  there  was  a  distinction 
in  education  and  that  this  distinction  showed  itself,  not  by 
differences  in  degree  and  amount  simply,  but  by  differences  in 
kind,  both  in  matter  and  method.  There  is  not  only  presump- 
tion; there  is  evidence.  i°  There  are  certain  customs  found 
in  historic  times,  undoubtedly  relics  of  earlier  centuries  or  ages, 
that  point  to  such  a  distinction  as  has  been  indicated. 
2°  There  are  some  hints  in  the  early  literature  of  the  Aryans. 
30  There  is  still  stronger  evidence  found  in  primitive  tribes 
of  to-day  who  are  still  untouched  by  modern  civilization  and 
well  represent,  in  their  customs,  modes  of  thought,  and  atti- 
tudes, the  childhood  of  races.  The  tribes  thus  present  charac- 
teristics that  may  well  have  ruled  in  prehistoric  days.  Putting 
all  the  evidence  together  we  are  justified  in  saying  that  the 
training  of  the  adolescent  differed  impressively  from  that  of  the 
child.  First,  there  was  a  more  conscious  aim  and  it  was  better 
defined.  Second,  the  community  organized  itself  for  a  more 
definite  training,  prescribed  certain  forms,  and,  through  charac- 
teristic ceremonies,  gave  a  peculiar  force  to  the  adolescent's 
education  that  was  lacking  in  that  of  the  child.34  Here  came 
in  "initiation"  ceremonies,  (naturally  religious),  and  severe 
physical  tests  that  often  extended  to  body  markings.35  We 
may  summarize  this  secondary  training  therefore  briefly  as 
follows : 38 

34  De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  46,  67,  68,  157,  169,  170;  Zend  Avesta, 
Fargard  IX  (Introd),  Fargard  XVIII,  1 :  9;  Appendix,  II:  9,  14. 

35  These  latter  should  probably  be  regarded  as  originally  totemistic 
rather  than  as  physical  tests.  This  makes  them  at  once  more  primitive 
and  significant.    They  will  be  considered  more  fully  in  the  next  chapter. 

36  Fuller  details  are  reserved  for  discussions  that  belong  more  prop- 
erly in  other  chapters.     (See  II,  III,  IV.) 


1 


14  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Summary  of  the  training  of  adolescents. —  The  training 
of  the  adolescent  naturally  proceeded  in  part  along  the  same 
lines  as  that  of  the  child.  He  was  getting  more  extended  and 
fuller  knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  tribe  in  its  various  directions. 
He  was  acquiring  more  power  over  his  environment  and  the 
operations  of  life.  But  there  was  something  beyond  this.  The 
choicest  or  most  characteristic  parts  of  the  acquisitions  of  the 
race,  the  more  secret  or  mysterious  bits  of  knowledge,  the  more 
sacred  traditions  and  legends,  the  more  strenuous  physical 
facts,  were  reserved  for  the  adolescent  and  were  applied  to 
the  young  men  by  the  elders  of  the  tribe  amid  impressive  cere- 
monies. 

Secondary  school  as  old  as  man. —  There  was,  therefore,  a 
kind  of  secondary  education  laid  out  in  rather  definite  fashion. 
Ends  were  conscious  and  means  well  organized.  The  second- 
ary school  is  therefore,  in  a  sense,  as  old  as  man.  The  high 
school  is  the  primitive  school  modernized.  This  will  appear 
more  fully  as  we  proceed. 

APPENDIX  I 

1.  The  Aryans. —  Not  many  decades  ago  the  most  interesting  and  im- 
portant part  of  the  investigation  of  primitive  civilization  was  to  seek 
out  in  the  highlands  of  Central  Asia  the  cradle  of  the  race  that  made 
Southern  Europe,  study  civilization  at  this  center,  trace  the  two  lines 
of  diffusion  to  the  East  and  West,  and,  again  study  the  two  branches 
of  the  western  migration  on  European  soil.  Then  the  Aryans  played 
a  leading  role  in  the  development  of  early  civilization.  To-day  their 
movements  form  a  secondary  episode  in  the  early,  though  not  in  the 
earliest,  ethnology  of  Europe. 

2.  Notes  on  sources.—  The  following  notes  on  some  of  the  sources 
as  they  appear  to  the  author  may  be  of  some  interest: 

(a)  Hewitt,  in  his  Ruling  Races  of  Prehistoric  Times,  gives  us 
especially  valuable  and  suggestive  data  for  our  purpose.  He  shows 
us  the  primitive  Dravidians  with  their  primitive  organization,  the  ma- 
triarchal village  community,  and  the  Dravidians,  or  Dravidian  amal- 
gamations, moving  westward  and  spreading  their  peculiar  land  cus- 
toms and  their  civic  and  religious  forms  that  made  the  foundation 
of  the  later  Greek  and  Roman  states,  and  other  states  as  well.  It 
is  becoming  evident  that  the  basal  element  of  European  civilization 
of  the  South  and  West  was  not  the  Aryans,  but  other  peoples  pressing 
on  from  the  East.  To  these  peoples,  it  would  seem,  were  due  the  ele- 
ment of  law,  the  conditions   that  made   for   settled   government   and 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  15 

industrial  development,  and  the  peculiar  formalism  found  in  the  Roman 
religion.  So  interesting  and  full  of  detail  is  Hewitt's  work  that  one 
is  tempted  to  give  more  data  than  are  essential  for  our  purpose. 

(b)  Ripley,  in  his  Races  of  Europe,  has  effectively  sifted  and 
organized  the  results  of  many  investigators  and  has  given  us  a  detailed 
and  careful  anthropological  description  of  the  three  fundamental  races 
of  Europe.  His  suggestions  as  to  origins  are  fairly  consistent  with 
those  of  Hewitt.  While  his  primary  purpose  is  anthropological,  he 
gives  us  some  useful  details  as  to  modes  of  life  and  acquisitions,  par- 
ticularly in  his  later  chapters. 

(c)  De  Coulanges,  in  his  Ancient  City,  has  given  us  a  most  bril- 
liant piece  of  work  and  specially  valuable  for  getting  at  the  points  of 
view  and  organization  of  early  society.  His  aim  is  rather  psychological 
and  sociological  than  strictly  ethnological.  His  picture  of  the  organiza- 
tion and  culture  of  the  prehistoric  community  is  peculiarly  vivid. 
While  his  study  applies  particularly  to  the  fundamental  features  in  the 
civilization  of  the  classical  states,  which  he  probably  conceived  to  be 
Aryan,  it  gives  much  of  value  in  the  study  of  any  primitive  civiliza- 
tion, and  has  been  used  as  generally  applicable  in  a  broad  sense. 

(d)  Other  sources  more  or  less  valuable  are  noted  on  page  6.  Still 
others  are  reserved  for  two  special  chapters  which  follow. 


APPENDIX  II 

3.  Primitive  knowledge  and  the  method  of  transmitting  it.  Old 
folk-lore  and  its  modern  counterparts. —  "  The  first  founders  of  na- 
tional education  were  an  agricultural  race,  and  the  lessons  they  had 
to  teach  their  young  pupils  were  not  the  rules  of  the  art  of  war,  or 
the  mysteries  of  religion,  but  those  which  embodied  the  results  at- 
tained by  the  long  series  of  experiments  which  had  formed  a  national 
science  of  agriculture.  To  enable  these  lessons  to  be  transmitted  from 
generation  to  generation  in  a  form  which  secured  them  from  distortion 
they  were  embodied  in  mythic  tales  which  were  carefully  repeated  by 
each  generation  of  scholars  after  their  teacher  till  they  became  indelibly 
impressed  on  their  memory.  Every  one  who  has  listened  to  Hindu 
scholars  repeating  their  lessons  after  their  master  will  understand  how 
this  was  done,  and  it  is  to  this  systematic  training  of  the  memory 
that  we  owe  innumerable  works  which  have  descended  to  us  in 
Sanskrit,  Pali  and  Prakrit  literature." —  Hewitt,  1 :  63. 

4.  "  But  when  national  education  was  looked  upon,  as  it  was  amongst 
the  Kushites,  as  one  of  the  most  important  tasks  of  internal  policy, 
and  it  was  found  necessary  to  improve  and  disseminate  more  widely 
than  had  hitherto  been  done  the  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the 
country  and  of  the  results  acquired  by  scientific  research,  these  were 
all  embodied  in  myths  framed  on  the  model  of  the  seasonal  myths 
which  formed  the  folk-tales  of  the  villagers,  these  being  almost  all 
based  on  the  recurrence  of  the  seasons,  the  most  important  subject  of 


16  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

knowledge  to  a  people  whose  living  was  gained  by  the  culture  of  plants, 
which  could  only  be  properly  carried  on  when  the  land  was  prepared, 
the  seed  sown,  the  fields  weeded,  and  the  crops  reaped  and  stored  in 
the  proper  seasons.  It  is  the  story  of  the  seasons  which  is  told  in  the 
numerous  stories  of  the  three  brothers,  the  youngest  of  whom,  the 
reaper  of  the  harvest,  is  alone  successful  in  his  quest ;  and  it  is  they 
which  appear  in  the  Cinderella  myth  and  its  variants.  ...  It  is  this 
mythical  method  of  recording  the  movements  of  time  which  appears  also 
in  the  story  of  the  Briar  Rose  or  Sleeping  Beauty.  It  is  tales  like 
these  which  have  always  been  from  time  immemorial  the  favorite  modes 
of  teaching  among  all  the  races  who  have  successively  ruled  India." 
—  Hewitt,    1:78-79. 

"  It  is  Sanskrit  fairy  tales  which  form  the  substratum  of  our  Eu- 
ropean stories ;  and  no  one  who  has  heard,  as  I  have  done,  the  fairy 
stories  of  my  youth  told  by  a  wild  Gond  in  the  forests  of  Sehawa,  at 
the  sources  of  the  Mahunuddy  in  Chuttisgurh,  can  ever  doubt  that 
these  stories  were  originally  conceived  by  the  myth-makers  of  the 
most  primitive  tribes  in  the  earliest  dawn  of  civilization.  The  stories 
my  Gond  guide  told  me  could  never  have  reached  his  tribe  from 
Northern  infiltration  in  historic  times,  for  I  was  probably  the  second, 
if  not  the  first,  European  he  or  his  people  had  ever  seen ;  for,  as  far 
as  I  could  make  out,  I  was  the  second  European  who  was  ever 
known  to  have  visited  this  wild  and  remote  tract.  ...  It  was  apparently 
these  people  who  first  formed  the  skeleton  foundations  on  which 
later  stories  were  founded,  and,  being  a  most  practical  people,  they 
made  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  convey  valuable  instruction  in  an 
interesting  and  easily  retained  form.  Having,  like  all  nations  with 
strong  Malay  affinities,  such  as  the  Chinese,  Burmese,  and  Bengalis, 
vivid  dramatic  instincts,  and  being  also,  like  the  Bengalis,  great 
makers  of  pithy  proverbs,  they  easily  and  naturally  turned  these  into 
stories  which  seemed  to  be  tales  told  of  individuals,  and  in  dramatiz- 
ing these,  either  in  the  story  or  in  mimic  action,  they  made  the  key- 
notes of  the  proverbs  the  names  of  the  actors  in  the  plot.  When 
these  stories  were  transferred  from  the  village  school  and  the  village 
meetings  in  the  Akra  or  dancing-place  to  the  guardianship  of  the 
royal  advisers  and  were  made  the  groundwork  of  national  history 
they  were  protected  from  alteration  by  the  same  taboo  which  forbade 
all  tampering  with  the  national   ritual." — Hewitt,   I:  80-81. 

5.  Method  of  education  with  comparisons. — "  In  order  to  insure 
the  permanence  of  their  national  traditions  the  Kushikas  insisted  most 
strongly  on  the  systematic  instruction  and  education  of  the  young, 
and  they  used  as  their  model  the  Dravidian  arrangements  for  the 
training  of  the  village  children  of  the  matriarchal  village.  By  this 
systematic  method  of  education  the  lives  of  all  the  younger  members 
of  the  community  were  passed  in  a  course  of  discipline  of  which 
the  Spartan  education,  descended  from  the  tribal  ancestors  of  the 
Dorians,   is  the   best   specimen.    I   have   shown  .  .  .  how   closely  the 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  17 

Dorian  customs  are  allied  to  those  of  the  Indian  Nagas,  and  the 
remembrance  of  these  national  training-schools  still  survives  in  the 
schools  of  the  Brahmans  among  the  Hindus,  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
education,  and  in  that  of  the  ancient  Persians  or  Parthians.  They,  like 
their  brethren,  the  Parthian  cavalry  of  India,  were  taught  to  ride, 
to  shoot  the  bow,  and  to  speak  the  truth."— Hewitt,  1:63.  (See  also 
pp.  297,  298.) 

6.  "  It  was  they  (the  Aryans)  who  changed  the  system  of  trade- 
guilds  and  craft-schools,  formed  under  the  Kushite  government  for 
preserving  and  adding  to  the  knowledge  necessary  for  the  continu- 
ance and  advancement  of  the  crafts  of  the  country,  into  family  circles 
in  which  every  one  remained  through  life  a  member  of  the  caste  in 
which  he  was  born,  instead  of  being,  as  people  were  in  Kushite  times, 
free  to  enter  any  other  caste  to  which  their  inclinations  led  them,  if 
they  could,  as  in  the  ancient  village,  secure  the  consent  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  guild  to  their  admittance.  Thus  this  Aryan  family  system 
had  its  roots  in  the  old  customs  of  the  country." — Hewitt,  I:  III. 

7.  Early  folk-lore  agricultural. — "  In  every  village  the  rising  gen- 
eration was  trained  by  their  mothers  and  maternal  uncles,  and  it  was 
from  the  teaching  instincts  thus  developed  that  the  folk-tale  and  the 
national  proverbs  which  are  as  ubiquitous  as  the  folk-tale,  originated. 
An  analysis  of  the  earliest  of  these  stories,  which  do  not  profess  to 
be  historical,  will  show  that  almost  all  of  them  are  connected  with 
the  explanation  of  natural  phenomena,  and  that  they  generally  are 
the  product  of  the  brains  of  agricultural  or  hunting  races  who  had 
keen  mercantile  instincts.  .  .  .  Some  are  too  manifestly  nature-myths, 
telling  of  the  course  of  the  year,  a  subject  of  vital  importance  to  the 
farming  tribes."  (The  tale  of  Demeter  and  Persephone  and  that  of 
the  Sleeping  Beauty  are  given  as  Northern  descendants  of  these 
myths.)  —  Hewitt  I :  xi. 

8.  Family  and  clan.  Their  bonds  of  union. — "We  find  in  each 
house  an  altar,  and  around  this  altar  the  family  assembled.  The  fam- 
ily meets  every  morning  to  address  its  first  prayers  to  the  sacred 
fire,  and  in  the  evening  to  invoke  it  for  a  last  time.  In  the  course 
of  the  day  the  members  are  once  more  assembled  near  the  fire  for 
the  meal,  of  which  they  partake  piously  after  prayer  and  libation. 
In  all  these  religious  acts,  hymns  which  their  fathers  have  handed 
down  are  sung  in  common  by  the  family." 

"  Outside  the  house,  near  at  hand,  in  a  neighboring  field,  there  is  a 
tomb,  the  second  home  of  this  family.  There  several  generations  of 
ancestors  repose  together ;  death  has  not  separated  them.  They  re- 
main grouped  in  this  second  existence  and  continue  to  form  an  indis- 
soluble family." 

"  The  members  of  the  ancient  family  were  united  by  something  more 
powerful  than  birth,  affection,  or  physical  strength;  this  was  the  re- 
ligion of  the  sacred  fire  and  of  dead  ancestors.  This  caused  the  family 
to  form  a  single  body  both  in  this  life  and  in  the  next.    The  ancient 


18  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

family  was  a  religious  rather  than  a  natural  association.  Religion, 
it  is  true,  did  not  create  the  family,  but  certainly  it  gave  the  family 
its  rules." — De  Coulanges,  49-52. 

9.  Initiation. — "  A  sort  of  initiation  was  also  required  for  the  son, 
as  we  have  seen  it  was  for  the  daughter.  This  took  place  a  short 
time  after  birth,  the  ninth  day  at  Rome,  the  tenth  in  Greece,  the 
tenth  or  twelfth  in  India.  On  that  day  the  father  assembled  the 
family,  assembled  witnesses,  and  offered  a  sacrifice  to  his  fire.  The 
child  was  presented  to  the  domestic  gods ;  a  female  carried  him  in 
her  arms  and  ran,  carrying  him,  several  times  around  the  sacred  fire 
(to  purify  and  to  initiate  into  the  domestic  worship).  From  this 
moment  the  infant  was  admitted  into  this  sort  of  sacred  society  or 
small  church  that  was  called  the  family.  He  possessed  its  religion, 
he  practiced  its  rites,  he  was  qualified  to  repeat  its  prayers ;  he  honored 
its  ancestors,  and  at  a  later  period  he  would  himself  become  an  honored 
ancestor." —  De  Coulanges,  67,  68. 

10.  Forms  of  religion  and  their  rise. — "  When  we  sought  the  most 
ancient  beliefs  of  these  men,  we  found  a  religion  which  had  their  dead 
ancestors  for  its  object  and  for  its  principal  symbol  the  sacred  fire.  .  .  . 
But  this  race  has  also  had  in  all  its  branches  another  religion,  the  one 
whose  principal  figures  were  Zeus,  Here,  Athene,  Juno, —  that  of  the 
Hellenic  Olympus  and  the  Roman  Capitol." 

"  Of  these  two  religions  the  first  found  its  gods  in  the  human  soul, 
the  second  took  them  from  physical  nature.  As  the  sentiment  of 
living  power  and  of  conscience,  which  he  felt  in  himself,  inspired  man 
with  the  first  idea  of  the  divine,  so  the  view  of  this  immensity  which 
surrounded  and  overwhelmed  him  traced  out  for  his  religious  senti- 
ment another  course." 

"  Man,  in  the  earlier  ages,  was  continually  in  the  presence  of  nature. 
The  habits  of  civilized  life  did  not  yet  draw  a  line  between  him  and  it. 
.  .  .  His  life  was  in  the  hands  of  nature.  .  .  .  He  experienced  perpetu- 
ally a  mingled  feeling  of  veneration,  love,  and  terror  for  this  power  of 
nature.  .  .  .  On  first  looking  on  the  external  world  man  pictured  it  to 
himself  as  a  sort  of  confused  republic  where  rival  forces  made  war  upon 
each  other.  As  he  judged  external  objects  from  himself,  and  felt 
in  himself  a  free  person,  he  saw  also  in  every  part  of  creation,  in  the 
soil,  in  the  tree,  in  the  cloud,  in  the  water  of  the  river,  in  the  sun, 
so  many  persons  like  himself.  He  endued  them  with  thought,  volition, 
and  choice  of  acts.  As  he  thought  them  powerful  and  was  subject  to 
their  empire  he  avowed  his  dependence;  he  invoked  them  and  adored 
them ;  he  made  gods  of  them." 

"  Thus  in  this  race  the  religious  idea  presented  itself  under  two 
different  forms.  On  the  one  hand  man  attached  the  divine  attribute 
to  the  invisible  principle,  to  the  intelligence,  to  what  he  perceived  of 
the  soul,  to  what  of  the  sacred  he  felt  in  himself.  On  the  other 
hand  he  applied  his  ideas  of  the  divine  to  the  external  object  which 


PRIMITIVE  TIMES  19 

he  saw,  which  he  loved  or  feared ;  to  physical  agents  which  were  the 
masters  of  his  happiness  and  of  his  life." 

"  These  two  orders  of  belief  laid  the  foundation  of  two  religions 
that  lasted  as  long  as  Greek  and  Roman  society.  They  did  not  make 
war  upon  each  other;  they  even  lived  on  very  good  terms,  and  shared 
the  empire  over  man;  but  they  never  became  confounded." — De  Cou- 
langes,  159-161. 

11.  Solidarity  of  family. — "Certainly  we  could  imagine  nothing 
more  solidly  constituted  than  this  family  of  the  ancient  ages  which 
combined  within  itself  its  gods,  its  worship,  its  priest,  and  its  magis- 
trate "  (the  father  combined  the  functions  of  the  last  two  func- 
tionaries). "There  could  be  nothing  stronger  than  this  city  which 
also  had  in  itself  its  religion,  its  protecting  gods,  and  its  independent 
priesthood,  which  governed  the  soul  as  well  as  the  body  of  man,  and 
which,  infinitely  more  powerful  than  the  states  of  our  day,  united 
in  itself  the  double  authority  that  we  now  see  shared  between  the 
state  and  the  church.  If  any  society  was  ever  established  to  last,  it 
was  certainly  that." — De  Coulanges,  299. 

A  divergent  view.— Von  Ihering  ("Evolution  of  the  Aryan,"  page 
32  ff.)  rejects  the  thought  of  the  compact  continuance  of  the  family  and 
of  filial  affection  as  applied  to  the  Aryan.  He  holds  that  the  elder 
son  soon  deposed  the  father  and  that  offerings  to  the  dead  were 
made  through  fear.  At  the  same  time  he  believes  that  the  Romans 
were  an  exception  and  that  among  them  the  father  retained  his  place. 
In  fact  the  Romans  illustrate  in  great  detail  the  matters  summarized 
above. —  De  Coulanges  holds  them  as  characteristic  of  the  Aryans  gen- 
erally. 

12.  Individual  and  community. — "There  was  nothing  independent 
in  man ;  his  body  belonged  to  the  state ;  ...  his  fortune  was  at  the 
disposal  of  the  state;  private  life  did  not  escape  the  omnipotence  of 
the  state." — De  Coulanges,  293. 

13.  Reference  to  teaching  in  Zend  Avesta. —  Special  references  to 
teacher,  learning,  method.  "  If  men  of  the  same  faith,  either  friends 
or  brothers,  come  to  an  agreement  together  that  one  may  obtain  from 
another  either  goods,  or  a  wife,  or  knowledge  ...  let  him  who  wants 
to  have  knowledge  be  taught  the  holy  word.  He  shall  learn  on  during 
the  first  part  of  the  day  and  the  last,  during  the  first  part  of  the 
night  and  the  last,  that  his  mind  may  be  increased  in  knowledge  and 
wax  strong  in  holiness;  so  shall  he  sit  up  giving  thanks  and  praying 
to  the  gods,  that  he  may  be  increased  in  knowledge  .  .  .  and  thus  shall 
he  continue  until  he  can  say  all  the  words  which  former  iEthrapaitis 
have  said."  Fargard  IV,  ii  e.  (The  customary  method  of  early  times 
seems  to  be  referred  to.  There  is  also  indication  of  contract  in  teach- 
ing.) 

14.  Ceremonies  peculiar  to  adolescence. —  There  are  also  some 
references,  or  rather  some  notes,  as  to  a  special  ceremony  for  the 


20  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

adolescent.  "  The  nine  nights "  Barashnum  "  is  the  great  purifica- 
tion, the  most  efficacious  of  all;  its  performance  was  prescribed,  once 
at  least  at  the  time  of  the  Nu  Zudi  (at  the  age  of  fifteen  when  the 
young  Parsi  becomes  a  member  of  the  community),  in  order  to  wash 
away  the  natural  uncleanness." — Fargard  IX,  introductory  note. 

The  Kosti,  "  worn  by  every  Parsi  man  or  woman  from  their  fifteenth 
year  of  age,  ...  is  the  badge  of  the  faithful,  the  girdle  by  which  he  is 
united  both  with  Ormazd  and  with  his  fellow  believers.  ...  He  who 
wears  it  becomes  a  participator  in  the  merit  of  all  the  good  deeds 
performed  all  over  the  Zarathusian  world."  Muller  proceeds  to  de- 
scribe the  curious  nature  of  the  Kosti.    Note  to  Fargard  XVIII,  1 : 9. 


II 

SECONDARY   EDUCATION    IN    PRIMITIVE   TRIBES   TO-DAY 

From  this  description  of  primitive  education  that  is  immeas- 
urbaly  remote  from  us  in  time,  as  well  as  in  its  evolutionary 
position,  we  come  to  a  consideration  of  a  primitive  education 
which  touches  us  in  time,  but  is  as  remote  as  the  other  in  its 
evolutionary  character. 

Sources  of  information. —  Various  primitive  tribes  to-day 
either  have  been  untouched  by  modern  civilization,  or  have 
been  so  little  affected  that  their  primitive  customs  can  be  easily 
discovered.  They  thus  give  us  much  insight  into  prehistoric 
life,  as  they  represent  a  similar  stage  of  development.  This 
chapter  will  therefore  reinforce  important  parts  of  the  first 
chapter  and  will  add  new  elements.  If  it  repeats  somewhat,  it 
does  so  from  new  view-points, —  first  from  view-point  of  actual 
observers,  second  from  that  of  new  tribes. 

These  tribes  which  are  to  be  considered  represent  various 
grades  of  civilization,  all  of  which  may  be  called  primitive,  but 
we  need  not  differentiate,  except  in  certain  particulars  that  will 
be  evident  in  the  course  of  discussion.  As  this  is  not  a  study 
in  anthropology  or  ethnology  we  are  concerned  only  with  such 
details  as  bear  particularly  on  the  matter  of  training  that  the 
community  supplied  for  its  children. 

Acquisitions  and  inheritances. —  The  most  primitive  peo- 
ples with  which  we  are  concerned  here  have  advanced  slightly 
beyond  the  tribal  stage  to  a  loose  organization,  seen  in  the  meet- 
ings of  elders  from  different  tribes  to  consider  general  inter- 
ests.1 Other  tribes  have  developed  ideas  of  more  definite 
organization, —  ideas  of  nationality,  generally  of  monarchical 
type.     In  industrial  lines  we  find  the  simplest  pursuits,  whether 

1  Appendix,  2,  5 ;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  Native  tribes  of  Central  Aus- 
tralia, 272.    See  also  the  same  author's  Northern  Tribes,  24,  27,  70. 

2\ 


22  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

in  the  domain  of  agriculture  or  that  of  handicrafts.2  In  rudi- 
mentary science  we  find,  first,  simple  number  ideas  3  that  may 
be  best  understood  by  reference  to  two  or  three  typical  number 
systems.  The  most  rudimentary  type  seems  to  be  that  in  which 
there  are  no  special  names  for  numbers,  simply  group  names,  so 
that  reckoning  is  by  "hand";  (a  hand  =  5 ;  2  hands  = 
10)  ;  by  "  man  "  (2  hands  -f-  2  feet  =  20),  etc.4  The  next  type 
seems  to  be  that  in  which  they  have  special  names  for  the  first 
three  numbers  and  by  repetition  and  combination  reach  five  or 
six  and  then  use  the  devices  given  above  with  the  aid  of  the 
special  expressions.  A  third  type  would  include  more  special 
names  or  a  higher  counting  capacity  (say,  200,  300,  etc.),  or 
both.  The  counting  power  is  sometimes  steadied  and  enforced 
by  means  of  tallies  (notches  in  sticks,  knobs,  sticks  in  sand, 
etc.).  Everything  therefore  is  concrete,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected. The  abstract  is  beyond  the  menal  grasp  of  primitive 
man. 

Knowledge  of  nature  and  the  healing  art. —  Under  the 
head  of  rudimentary  science  should  also  be  included  their  obser- 
vations of  nature  that  were  many  and  accurate,5  and  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  medical  art,0  with  its  magic  and  supersti- 
tion. 

Religion. —  In  religion  we  find  animism  and  fetishism 
widespread.7  One  of  the  most  fundamental  and  striking 
forces  in  religion  is  the  totem,8  from  which  a  whole  system  of 
totemic  religion  has  grown.  Naturally,  with  their  crude  ideas, 
superstition  and  magic  arts  also  appear  as  a  part  of  their  re- 
ligion. But  we  also  find  definite  ideas  of  gods  apart  from  the 
totemic  system,  at  least  in  certain  places,  and  a  belief  in  a  future 
existence.     In  connection  with  all  this  they  have  a  wealth  of 

2  See  Ratzel,  History  of  Mankind ;  Featherman,  Social  History  of  the 
Races  of  Mankind ;  Letourneau,  L'Evolution  de  L'Education. 

3  Appendix   10.     Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  134. 

4  All  this  indicates  that  number  development  was  originally  digital. 

8  See  Hewitt,  op.  cit.,  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  24-26,  and  books  on 
primitive  tribes  generally. 

6  Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  155,  234. 

7  Appendix  I ;  Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II :  353,  355-357,  481 ;  Featherman, 
op.  cit.,  I:  161-2;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.  123,  124,  138,  310,  311; 
Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  141,  142. 

8  See  Appendix  I. 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  23 

religious  legends  (history  to  them),  and  religious  ceremonies 
and  ritual.9 

Folk-lore. —  Folk-lore  there  is  in  abundance.10  One  de- 
partment of  it  has  just  been  referred  to.  We  also  find 
proverbs,  aphorisms,  riddles,  fables,  general  legends,  astronom- 
ical fables  and  myths,  myths  concerning  gods,  beast-legends, 
war-songs,  hero-tales,  and  tales  that  point  to  migrations  and 
amalgamations.11  In  this  connection  reference  should  be  made 
also  to  pantomimes  and  burlesques,12  of  which  primitive  peoples 
seem  fond.  The  wandering  minstrel  reinforces  local  story- 
tellers 13  in  the  transmission  of  the  mass  of  stories  that  this  list 
suggests.  But  he  is  not  always  the  honored  guest  we  find 
him  among  the  Greeks.  Featherman,  in  his  account  of  African 
races,  tells  us  of  "  wandering  musicians  who  dress  up  in  fan- 
tastic style,  put  on  all  the  emblematic  mummeries  of  magic  art, 
and  recite  in  recitative  strain  all  the  incidents  of  their  travels, 
but  are  looked  upon  with  despite  as  selling  charms  for  hire. "  u 
However,  we  may  not  have  here  a  real  "  minstrel  "  correspond- 
ing in  function  to  the  rhapsodist ;  but  the  latter  is  found  among 
primitive  peoples. 

Art. —  Rudimentary  art  is  very  conspicuous  among  these 
tribes.  Their  interest  in  graphic  expression  is  instinctive.15 
The  necessity  of  expressing  themselves  finds  this  one  of  the 
simplest  and  most  natural  means,  as  it  gives  them  some  of  the 
simplest  and  most  suggestive  symbols.  They  thus  readily  prac- 
tice drawing  and  carving,  but  in  a  limited  field,  for  they  have  a 
predilection  for  figures  of  animals  and  men ;  a  landscape  passes 
their  comprehension.  In  some  cases  they  have  made  great 
progress  in  design  and  show  real  artistic  sense. 

9  Appendix  2,  3,  5,  7 ;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  145,  229-30,  323-24, 
and  generally  Chapters  VII-VIII. 

"Appendix  10;  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  I:  355-56;  Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II: 
276-279,  327,  480;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  145,  229-30,  310,  311,  et 
passim;  Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  119,  135,  153,  230. 

11  Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II:  250,  260;  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  I:  355. 

12  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  228-30,  334  ft.,  336,  352-3,  et  al.;  Feather- 
man, op.  cit.,  I:  355-56;  Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II:  480;  Letourneau,  op.  cit., 
119,   135,  217,  230;   Appendix   10. 

13  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  1 :  355-56;  Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II :  480;  Letourneau, 
op.  cit.,  119,  135,  217,  230;  Appendix  10. 

14  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  1 :  23. 

15  Appendix,  1,  2,  10 ;  Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  47,  58,  69,  122-23. 


24  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Physical  facts. —  The  physical  man  is  not  neglected.  Be- 
sides the  spontaneous  exercise  which  his  life  suggests  and 
enforces,  primitive  man  has  universally  practiced  himself  in 
the  dance.16  Rhythm,  as  indicated  before,  is  an  instinct.  Ges- 
ture wonderfully  attracts  and  meets  with  ready  response.  The 
dances  thus  minister  to  religious  ceremony,  which  is  highly 
developed  in  these  tribes,  to  primitive  impulse  for  the  motions 
involved,  and  perhaps  to  the  social  instinct.  At  least  they  are  a 
most  characteristic  part  of  life,  and  every  true  tribesman  must 
train  himself  in  them.  Then  the  tribe  prescribes  special  phys- 
ical training  for  its  new  members,  and  lays  particular  emphasis 
upon  physical  tests  involving  severe  physical  strain,17  to  which 
the  boy  must  be  subjected  before  becoming  a  member  of  the 
tribe.  Primitive  peoples  spontaneously  provide  for  certain 
physical  qualities  to  be  developed  in  new  tribesmen. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  us,  in  the  present  connection,  to  elabor- 
ate these  topics  in  great  detail.  It  is  sufficient  to  know  that  the 
most  primitive  peoples  have  accumulated  a  variety  of  experi- 
ences that  may  be  grouped  into  several  classes.18 

Education  of  the  child  and  of  the  adolescent. —  Some  of 
the  simpler  accumulations  are  naturally  and  Inevitably  appro- 
priated by  children.  The  most  vital  of  them  are  studiously 
reserved  for  adolescents,19  and  their  mastery  is  the  culmination 
of  youthful  achievement,  or  the  initial  step  in  full  manhood. 
While  we  are  not  concerned  directly  with  elementary  educa- 
tion, a  brief  reference  to  it  will  give  a  better  basis  for  the  study 
of  adolescent  education  and  will  at  the  same  time  help  us  to 
gain  a  clearer  conception  of  it.  In  order  to  fully  appreciate  this 
earlier  stage  of  education  we  must  keep  carefully  in  mind 
what  was  said  in  Chapter  I  as  to  the  point  of  view  of  primitive 
peoples,  their  ideals,  and  their  aims.20 

18  Appendix,  i,  7,  10;  Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II:  480;  Letourneau,  op.  cit., 
120,  134,  217.  See  also  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  and  Spencer  and  Gillen, 
op.  cit.,  381. 

17  Appendix,  2 ;  Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II :  304-5  ;  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  1 :  623 ; 
Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  271-2,  347,  380,  450  ff. ;  also  Chapters  VII, 
VIII ;  Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  153-4. 

18  See  page  30  f . 

19  Appendix,  2;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  145,  229-30,  309;  Le- 
tourneau, op.  cit.,  153-4. 

20  Chapter  I,  pp.  8,  9. 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  25 

The  aim  in  elementary  education. —  The  aim  in  primitive 
elementary  education  is  a  general  one.  Aims  do  not  become 
fully  definite  and  purposeful  till  the  secondary  period.  Means 
are  the  simplest  and  most  natural.  There  is  no  definite  organi- 
zation. The  whole  process  may  be  said  to  be  largely  spontane- 
ous. Observation,  imitation,  play,  participation,  showing,  rote- 
learning  21  comprise  the  method,  which  is  ready-made,  not 
studied ;  a  gift  of  nature,  not  planned.  In  this  way  are  taught 
the  simplest  facts  and  processes  needed  for  life  in  the  tribe, — 
the  elementary  and  more  necessary  portions  of  the  race  acqui- 
sitions that  have  been  outlined.22 

Different  types  of  elementary  education. —  As  was  sug- 
gested in  Chapter  I  the  simplest  form  of  education  seems  to  be 
that  which  is  purely  spontaneous,  through  imitation  and  play. 
The  initiative  comes  from  the  children,23  as  they  are  left  largely 
to  themselves.  The  next  stage  is  very  similar,  but  has  the 
additional  element  of  participation  in  the  work  of  parents.  A 
third  stage  is  reached  when  the  parents  make  definite  efforts 
and  plans  (family)  to  teach  their  children  the  necessary  opera- 
tions of  life.24  The  fourth  stage  is  that  in  which  special  teach- 
ers for  training  the  young,25  —  clan  members,  elders,  priests, — 
are  provided.  Education  seems  to  move  from  the  type  in 
which  the  elders  are  the  repositories  of  all  the  learning  of  the 
race  to  that  in  which  priests  are  supreme. 

Discipline. —  It  is  interesting  to  note  also  that  in  primi- 
tive life  there  is  no  conception  of  discipline  in  the  sense  of 
supervision  and  government,  including  corporal  punishment. 
Corporal  punishment  is  not  a  relic  of  barbarism,  but  a  product 
of  civilization.  In  the  most  primitive  races  the  children  are 
practically  abandoned  to  govern  themselves,  and  for  a  consider- 

21  Appendix,  10;  Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  134,  I51- 

22  Method  and  scope  of  training  are  indicated  in  Letourneau's  ac- 
counts of  Australians,  New  Caledonians,  Hottentots,  East  and  West 
Africans,  Polynesians,  Tartars,  Malays;  in  Ratzel's  and  Featherman' s 
descriptions  of  African  and  Eskimo  life;  and  in  Spencer  and  Gillen's 
Studies  of  Central  Australian  Tribes.     Appendix  10. 

23  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  1:514-15,  599;  Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  133-134. 
153 ;  Appendix  10. 

24  Appendix  10;  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  I:  427. 

25  Appendix  10. 


26  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

able  distance  up  in  the  evolution  of  education  discipline  is  mild 
and  lax,  "  douceur,"  as  Letourneau  puts  it.  When,  however, 
training  becomes  a  more  conscious  process,  careful  sur- 
veillance becomes  prominent,  and  punishment,  admonition,  and 
exhortation  suggest  themselves  as  the  readiest  means  of  moral 
training. 

Secondary  education. —  Primary  education  is  just  what 
we  might  expect,  natural,  informal.  We  need  not  dwell  fur- 
ther on  it  here.  Secondary  education,  while  sharing  some  of 
its  characteristics,  is  radically  different  from  it.  Aims  and 
ideals  have  become  fully  conscious  and  definite.  The  knowl- 
edge to  be  imparted  is  carefully  defined.  Method  is  the  object 
of  great  care.  It  has  been  carefully  planned  and  is  very  pre- 
cise. |  To  get  at  its  real  meaning  it  is  more  essential  here  than 
in  discussing  elementary  education  to  recall  and  impress  primi- 
tive ideals  and  aims  dwelt  upon  in  Chapter  I.28  Briefly  the 
plan  is  this :  — 

1.  The  boy  is  to  be  capable  of  representing  and  supporting 
clan  or  tribe  mentally  and  physically.  He  must  master  the 
facts,  ceremonies,  and  lore  that  are  most  essential  in  maintain- 
ing the  forms  of  life  and  thought  characteristic  of  his  social 
and  political  environment.27 

2.  Special  localities  are  chosen  for  the  most  impressive 
parts  of  the  educational  process.28 

3.  The  boys  are  separated  from  the  women,29  who  have  no 
part  in  the  most  characteristic  details  of  the  proceedings,  and 
they  are  taken  in  charge  by  picked  men,  while  the  whole  pro- 
ceeding is  directed  by  "  headman  "  and  elders.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  find  that  there  is  a  union  of  tribes  in  this  course  of  edu- 
cation and  that  the  occasion  is  taken  advantage  of  for  inter- 
tribal meetings  of  elders.30  This,  of  itself,  adds  force  and 
impressiveness  to  the  ceremonies  and  to  the  training  that  the 
boys  now  receive.     Amid  silence  (on  the  part  of  the  novices), 

26  Chapter  I,  pp.  8,  9. 

27  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  1 :  413,  514-15,  580,  623 ;  Spencer  and  Gillen, 
op.  cit.,  139^-40,  213-18  ff.,  271-2,  310-11;  Letourneau,  op.  cit.,  134; 
Ratzel,  op.  cit.,  II :  370.     See  Appendix  2,  3,  7. 

28  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  139-40.     See  Appendix  2. 

29  Appendix  2. 

80  Appendix  2;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  272. 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  27 

awe  and  mystery,  amid  apparent  manifestations  of  the  spirit 
forces,  with  occasional  weird  sounds  from  the  bull-roarers  in 
which  dwell  ancestral  spirits,31  the  most  vital  and  carefully 
guarded  items  of  the  tribe's  acquisitions  and  the  most  sacred 
part  of  tribal  history  are  impressed  on  the  boys,  and  they 
receive  on  their  bodies  the  tribal  symbols  and  assume  the  char- 
acteristic articles  of  man's  dress.32  After  the  special  cere- 
monies it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  boys  to  pass  a  time  in  the 
"  bush  "  supporting  themselves,  and  sometimes,  at  least,  receiv- 
ing further  instruction  from  the  "elders."33  During  the 
initiation  also  the  boys  may  be  taught  a  new  name  and  a  mystic 
language.34  We  must  not  suppose  the  exercises  are  necessarily 
brief ;  they  are  never  such.  They  are  sometimes  distributed 
over  years.  A  candidate  for  tribehood,  too,  may  be,  and  fre- 
quently, if  not  always,  is  required  to  be  present  at  more  than 
one  such  occasion  as  has  just  been  referred  to,  before  becom- 
ing a  fully  initiated  "  man." 35  He  probably  is  not  always 
required  to  go  through  the  ordeal  a  second  time,  though  this 
fact  comes  out  definitely  in  one  case  which  is  recorded. 

That  which  forms  what  we  may  call  the  subject  matter  of 
this  training  will  be  found  to  connect  itself  particularly  but 
not  exclusively  with  religion,  physical  power,  and  folk-lore. 
That  part  of  the  initiatory  proceedings  or  teaching  which  is 
connected  with  the  physical  boy  is  very  conspicuous,  but  not 
on  that  account  as  important  as  some  other  elements  of  the 
training. 

Physical  marks  and  tests. —  This  latter  topic  needs  a  few 
additional  words  to  emphasize  what,  it  is  fair  to  assume,  is  the 
fundamental  conception  connected  with  it.    Under  the  head 

81  Appendix  1,  2 ;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit,  139  ff.,  149. 

32  Appendix  2 ;  Featherman,  op.  cit.,  I :  9,  566^-67. 

33  Appendix  2,  4,  5 ;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  347. 

34  Appendix  4,  5,  6 ;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  139,  140. 

When  tribe  was  enemy  of  tribe  and  the  possession  of  secrets  by 
another  tribe  might  have  tragic  consequences,  secrecy  was  a  neces- 
sary tribal  policy.  Hence  it  is  not  strange  that  women  did  not  partici- 
pate in  the  mature  business  of  the  tribe,  aside  from  any  influence 
coming  from  early  conceptions  of  woman's  position.  In  war  they 
would  be  captives  and  might  jeopardize  tribal  interests  by  divulging 
tribal  secrets  either  voluntarily  or  under  stress.  The  mystic  language 
may  have  special  significance  here,  as  Mathews  suggests. 

35  Appendix  3. 


28  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  physical  we  may  place  three  classes  of  experiences,36 
i°,  body-markings,  2°,  mutilations,  30,  severe  physical  strain 
or  suffering.  We  may  assume  that  there  are  two  ends  in  view. 
Thus,  i°  and  20  probably  have  for  their  object  the  assimila- 
tion of  the  individual  to  the  totem  of  the  tribe ;  certain  changes 
of  the  body  (especially  of  the  mouth  and  head)  are  necessary 
to  give  him  some  resemblance  to  the  animal  that  represents  the 
totem.  The  tattooings  of  various  kinds  and  degrees,  gash- 
ings,  incisions,  and  cicatrices,  are  perhaps  totemic  signs  and 
symbols;  at  least  they  are  tribal.  It  has  perhaps  been  com- 
mon to  regard  the  second  class  of  experience  (mutilations)  as 
mere  physical  tests,  to  prove  the  boy  before  admitting  him  to 
the  tribe,  but  it  is  more  significant,  and  more  in  accord  with 
what  we  know  of  race  development,  to  regard  them  as  totemic 
in  origin.  The  third  class  of  physical  experiences  may  prob- 
ably be  regarded  as  purely  physical  tests  or  examinations.  It 
is  possible  that  they  came  in  later  after  the  significance  of  the 
second  class  had  been  lost.37 

Results  of  this  training. —  From  what  has  been  said  it  is 
evident  that  the  result  of  such  training  gives  a  high  degree  of 
efficiency  to  the  powers  of  observation  and  to  memory,  espe- 
cially the  latter.  Much  of  the  ceremony  of  initiation  is  calcu- 
lated to  stimulate  attention  incisively  even  painfully  and 
this  is  one  of  the  prime  conditions  for  strengthening  the 
memory,  or  better,  the  memories.  There  is  practically  no  train- 
ing of  the  intellectual  powers  further  than  has  been  noted,  but 
this  secondary  education  has  a  distinct  effect  on  moral  develop- 
ment, in  fact  is  intended  to  have,  giving  courage,  self-control, 
respect  for  authority,  and  other  qualities,  as  Spencer  and  Gillen 
show  from  a  study  of  primitive  tribes  in  Australia.38 

If  it  be  thought  that  too  much  definiteness  and  purpose  ful- 
ness has  been  assumed  in  the  matter  of  secondary  education 
among  primitive  tribes, —  that  much  has  been  "  read  into  "  their 
plans,  that  a  scheme  of  education  has  been  "  made  up,"  a  brief 

36  Appendix  2,  10;  Featherman,  op.  c'xi.,  1:224,  407,  566-67,  580,  623; 
Ratzel,  op.  at.,  II:  106,  in,  394-5,  466,  470;  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op   cit 
272;  Letourneau,  op.  at.,  153-4.     See  also  references  on  page  13,  note  W 

37  Plato,  Republic,  413-14. 

»8  Spencer  and  Gillen,  op.  cit.,  272;  Appendix   10;  Letourneau    op 
at.,  199.  217,  221. 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  29 

study  will  show  that  the  evidence  justifies  even  stronger 
statements  than  have  been  made.  Mathews'  account  of  initia- 
tion ceremonies  among  Australian  savages  may  be  taken  as  a 
basis.39  It  shows  that  there  is  a  very  definite  course  of  instruc- 
tion. Spencer  and  Gillen's  studies  show  that  secondary  train- 
ing initiates  the  boy  into  the  early  (mythological)  history  of 
his  race,  into  totemic  secrets,  and  into  complicated  ceremonies 
and  dances  that  are,  according  to  their  crude  notion,  vitally 
related  to  the  prosperity  and  life  of  the  tribe.  These  accounts 
are  reinforced  by  the  mass  of  facts  as  to  primitive  life  and  edu- 
cation gathered  by  Ratzel  and  Featherman  in  their  accounts 
of  African,  Australian,  and  Eskimo  life,  and  by  Letourneau 
in  his  U Evolution  de  U Education.40 

Primitive  secondary  education  compared  with  modern 
secondary  education. —  Thus  the  impression  grows  that 
these  primitive  folk  have  aims  and  ideals  in  "  secondary  "  edu- 
cation more  clearly  defined  than  ours  (and  naturally  so  in  the 
absence  of  such  complexity  as  faces  us),  that  the  course  of 
training  is  sharply  defined  and  fixed  and  is  the  object  of 
unwavering  faith,  and  that  their  method  is  clearly-cut,  uniform, 
and  well  adapted  to  their  purpose.  Mr.  Tozzer  of  the  Peabody 
Museum,  Cambridge,  was  initiated  into  the  Navajo  Indian 
tribe.  His  account  of  the  initiation  ceremonies  of  the  Yei-bi=- 
tsai,  which  he  kindly  gave  in  a  personal  interview,41  illustrates 
and  enforces  all  these  points  and  affords  a  fine  example  of  the 
definiteness  of  primitive  adolescent  training.  The  high  school, 
as  has  been  said  in  Chapter  I,  is  simply  the  primitive  secondary 
school  modernized.  The  change  has  come  particularly  in  sub- 
ject matter  and  method.  The  primitive  aim  and  our  aim, 
stated  in  general  terms,  would  be  almost  identical,  as  must  be 
evident  from  what  has  been  said  in  this  chapter.  Their  aim, 
however,  has  a  more  definite  meaning  for  them.  Their  educa- 
tion is  systematized,  in  a  way,  as  well  as  ours,  and  has  all,  or 
practically  all,  the  elements  that  are  found  in  our  high  schools. 
The  difference  between  our  secondary  training  and  theirs  does 

39  Appendix  2,  3,  4,  5,  6. 

40  Appendix  10,  which  gives  many  references  for  different  items  of 
education. 

41  Appendix  7. 


30  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

not  lie  so  much  in  the  fact  that  any  of  these  elements  of  school- 
life  are  absent  in  primitive  education,  but  in  the  fact  that  they 
have  grown  in  scope  and  complexity  since  then,  that  ideals, 
subject  matter,  and  method  have  adapted  themselves  to  chang- 
ing conditions,  though  somewhat  tardily,  because  of  the  con- 
servative nature  of  education. 

A  variety  of  illustrative  material  as  to  primitive  education 
of  to-day  will  be  found  in  the  appendix  and  marginal  refer- 
ences. If  all  the  evidence  is  carefully  studied,  it  will  be  found 
to  support  the  conclusions  as  to  prehistoric  education  given  in 
Chapter  I.     Support  will  grow  stronger  as  we  advance. 

Summary  of  primitive  secondary  education. —  The  main 
points  of  this  chapter  may  now  be  summarized  in  the  follow- 
ing outline;  but  it  should  be  noted  that  the  general  classes  of 
subject  matter  referred  to  are  found  in  both  the  primary  and 
the  secondary  period.  The  most  characteristic  parts  are 
reserved  for  the  adolescent  boys. 

Education  in  the  secondary  period:  — 

Aim. —  Insight  into  the  choicest  knowledge  of  the  tribe.  Strong 
impressions  of  most  important  tribal  characteristics  and  cus- 
toms. Induction  into  full  citizenship.  Education  into  the  life 
of  the  tribe. 
Analysis  of  curriculum:  —  More  serious  and  secret  elements  of  the 
following: 
Industrial  facts:  —  Elements  of  occupations.     (This  suggests 

manual  training). 
Social  and  political  facts :  —  Knowledge  of  and  full  participa- 
tion in  clan  and  tribal  life  (organization,  councils,  etc.). 
(The  foundation  of  civics.) 
Religious  facts :  —  Primitive  ritual.  Particularly  totemic  cere- 
monies and  signs;  facts  as  to  Churinga  (bull-roarers).42 
All  characteristic  ceremonies.  Magic.  (The  beginnings  of 
religious  instruction  are  seen  here, —  now  made  a  regular 
and  very  important  part  of  the  curriculum  in  several  con- 
tinental systems.) 
Folk-lore :  —  Tales  of  ancestors  and  histories  of  totems. 
Songs.  Practical  knowledge  gained  through  experience  of 
tribe,  treasured  by  old  men  and  handed  on.  Sometimes  a 
special  totem  name  with  all  its  significance,  was  given  to  the 
individual;  sometimes  a  new  language  was  taught.  (The 
basis  of  language  and  literature.)  Note  also  tabulation  on 
pp.  6  ff.,  23,  35. 

42  See  Appendix  1,  2,  7. 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  31 

Nature  facts :  —  Close  observation  of  nature  enforced  and  vivi- 
fied through  intense  relations  of  men  to  natural  phenomena 
and  to  nature's  supplies.  Knowledge  treasured  and  trans- 
mitted in  easy  formulae.  (The  rudiments  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences.) 

Number:  —  Simple  concrete  facts.  Few  particular  ideas. 
Limited  series,  perhaps  up  to  5,  and  then  by  5's  and  io's. 
(The  rudiments  of  mathematics  and  exact  science.) 

Art:  —  General  symbolism  of  tribe.  Participation  in  mak- 
ing sacred  objects  (see  sand-paintings  of  the  Navajos). 
Body-paintings.  Drawing.  Carving  of  useful  and  orna- 
mental articles.  (Beginnings  of  drawing  and  art,  with  fur- 
ther suggestions  as  to  manual  training.) 

Physical  training:  —  Physical  tests  trying  nerve  and  muscle. 
Body-markings, —  tattooing,  incisions,  cicatrizing,  teeth- 
breaking,  etc.    Dances.     (An  early  stage  of  physical  culture.) 

As  we  follow  the  training  of  the  adolescent  we  can  thus 
easily  detect  our  modern  curriculum  in  outline,  for  its  founda- 
tions are  plainly  visible. 

Method. —  ( 1 )   Observation  —  imitation  —  practice  —  participation. 

(2)  Impressive  initiation  ceremonies  exciting  the  highest  de- 
gree of  attention,  and  thus  reinforcing  memory.  During  these 
ceremonies  there  is  a  sustained  effort  to  give  definite  instruc- 
tion and  practice  (of  a  rude  sort)  in  matters  of  intimate  con- 
cern to  the  life  of  the  tribe. 

(3)  Full  participation  in  the  life  of  the  tribe, —  at  least  after 
a  period  of  probation. 

General  characterization  of  primitive  secondary  education. 
—  From  the  two  studies  summarized  in  Chapters  I  and  II 
it  appears  that  primitive  peoples,  while  leaving  the  education 
of  young  children  to  nature  and  natural  conditions,  had  and 
still  have  a  definite  aim  and  a  studied  plan  of  training  in  the 
case  of  boys  of  secondary  age.  The  plan  involves  the  conscious 
adaptation  of  method  and  matter  to  the  aim, —  in  a  word  organi- 
zation of  a  very  definite  sort.  The  education  of  adolescents  had 
in  view  two  distinct  and  yet  closely  correlated  objects,  1,  the 
mastery  of  the  choicest  knowledge  inheritances  of  the  race,  so 
presented  as  to  strike  the  more  fully  developed  imagination  of 
youth  and  inspire  the  boys  under  training  with  the  importance  of 
the  impartations  ;  2,  vocational  and  civic  training,  which,  though 
simple  in  character  and  scope,  because  of  the  simple  and  limited 
nature  of  tribal  life,  was  as  essential  for  existence  as  the  more 


32  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

detailed  vocational  training  of  to-day.  All  this  training  was 
conducted  by  a  group  of  men  well  fitted  by  age  and  experience 
to  induct  the  new  candidates  for  citizenship  into  the  character- 
istic ideas  and  forms  of  the  tribe.  This  education  was  thus 
public,  not  private.  It  was  a  community  concern.  The  organi- 
zation of  education  was  tribal.  In  this  primitive  secondary 
school  the  main  features  of  secondary  education,  which  were 
so  familiar  in  later  ages,  were  already  visible. 

APPENDIX 

I.  In  connection  with  primitive  tribes  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in 
mind  two  characteristic  features  of  their  life  and  thought :  — 

A.  Totems. —  Ideas  connected  with  their  totems, —  natural  objects, 
generally  animals  or  trees  (but  not  necessarily  these  only),  which  they 
think  were  their  first  ancestors.  The  totems  have  certain  signs  or  sym- 
bols that  appear  conspicuously  on  men's  bodies  or  on  prominent  objects 
in  the  community.  More  than  this,  boys  are  often  assimilated  to  these 
objects  by  dress,  arrangement  of  hair,  or  bodily  changes.  The  totem 
is   one  of  the   most    fundamental   conceptions   among  primitive   races. 

B.  Churinga,—"  Bull-roarers." — The  second  feature  is  connected 
with  the  first.  It  is  the  "bull-roarer."  Spencer  and  Gillen  give  an 
interesting  account  of  this  object  in  connection  with  the  Alcheringa,— 
a  name  applied  to  what  was  to  them  the  beginning  of  time,  the 
period  when  their  first  ancestors  were  formed.  These  ancestors  were 
so  intimately  associated  with  the  totems  that  one  of  them  is  some- 
times called  kangaroo-man  or  man-kangaroo.  The  human  idea  is 
often  sunk  in  that  of  the  animal  or  plant  from  which  the  man  is 
supposed  to  have  sprung.  The  history  of  the  tribe  began  here  with 
these  semi-human  ancestors  having  unique  powers  (as  compared  with 
their  descendants),  which  were  exercised  in  part  in  producing  some 
of  the  striking  geological  features  of  the  region.  In  connection  with 
these  Alcheringa  ideas,  perhaps,  or  as  another  version  of  the  doings 
of  those  times,  we  find  the  story  of  the  creation  of  men  and  women 
from  plants  and  animals  through  some  transformation,  making  rather 
inchoate  individuals  who  dwelt  in  groups  along  the  shore  of  the  Salt 
Sea   that   originally  covered  part   of   the   country.     (i2off.,   388.) 

Now  early  races  were  impressed  with  the  spirit  part  of  the  individual, 
which  they  objectified  in  different  ways.  The  spirits  of  these  Alcheringa 
ancestors  were  closely  associated  with  certain  rounded,  oval  or  elon- 
gated, flattened  stones  and  slabs  of  wood  of  various  sizes  (with  sides 
flat  and  concave,  or  concave  and  convex),  called  churinga.  In  fact  it 
was  supposed  that  the  spirits  resided  in  these  objects,  and  that  when 
a  child  was  born  in  the  tribe,  the  spirit  was  reincarnated,  the  child 
thus  possessing  the  churinga  of  the  ancestor  and  of  course  belonging 
to  his  totem,  without  regard  to  the  mother's  totem.    Naturally  these 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  33 

churinga  were  decorated  with  special  symbols  or  devices,  the  device  be- 
ing "  generally  a  conventional  arrangement  of  circular,  semi-circular, 
spiral,  curved,  and  straight  lines,  most  frequently  a  series  of  concentric 
circles,  or  a  close-set  spiral."  (145.)  They  were  preserved  with  great 
care  and  secrecy.  The  location  of  their  depositaries  and  the  stories 
connected  with  them  became  an  important  part  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  tribe  that  was  kept  from  all  but  the  duly  admitted  male  members. 
The  smaller  of  these  churinga  were  called  bull-roarers.  They,  like 
some  of  the  others,  had  holes  bored  in  one  end,  perhaps  because  of  a 
tradition  that  the  Alcheringa  men  used  to  hang  them  up.  Strings  were 
attached  to  the  bull-roarers,  and  a  quick  whirling  in  the  air  produced 
weird  music  that  added  a  striking  element  in  ceremonies.  It  is  well 
known  that  such  objects  have  in  modern  times  become  playthings. 
Many  a  one  can  look  back  to  them  as  interesting  objects  of  amusement, 
another  illustration,  as  Haddon  suggests,  that  serious  religious  objects 
of  primitive  times  have  become  the  playthings  of  modern  times.  We 
might  say  that  one  early  educational  force  has  been  transformed  into 
another,  which,  though  less  impressive,  has  still  some  educational  value, 
—  is  really  a  part  of  a  great  series  of  educational  forces  which  are  of 
great  import  in  early  years.  (This  account  applies  to  Central  Australia, 
but  it  is  useful  for  general  knowledge  of  these  objects.) 

2.  A  primitive  secondary  school. —  Mathews  in  several  articles 
gives  detailed  descriptions  of  initiation  ceremonies.  Here  is  an  out- 
line of  the  Bunan  of  South  Wales  that  he  describes  in  the  American 
Anthropologist  9 :  327  ff. 

(1.)     Ceremonies  serving  as  a  signal  that  a  Bunan  is  to  take  place. 

(2.)     Selection  of  the  place. 

(3.)  Meeting  to  talk  over  general  interests  of  the  tribe  and  to  de- 
termine details  of  the  Bunan. 

(4.)  Bunan  ground  prepared,  the  main  elements  being,  (a)  a  large 
circular  place  cleared,  surrounded  by  a  low  embankment  with  a  single 
opening;  a  pathway  leading  from  the  opening  to  a  second  circle  about 
a  sixth  of  a  mile  distant  made  like  the  first,  but  smaller;  the  path 
bordered  on  each  side  by  an  embankment  for  a  short  distance  from 
the  circles.    This  diagram  will  illustrate  some  of  these  points. 


(b)  Beside  the  pathway,  in  the  smaller  circle,  and  elsewhere  were 
various  figures  and  devices  made  by  heaping  up  earth  or  cutting  (these 
probably  representing  totem  animals  and  signs,  at  least  in  part). 

(5.)     Messengers  summon  tribes  to  attend. 

(6.)     Tribes  gather,  bringing   their  novices   to  be   initiated.     (The 


34  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Bunan  is  not  for  the  single  tribe  in  whose  district  it  occurs.  Various 
tribes  are  united  in  it.) 

(7.)     Headmen  and  followers  examine  ground  and  devices. 

(8.)     Boys  taken  away  from  the  women. 

There  are  eighteen  distinct  movements  up  to  this  point,  all  attended 
with  characteristic  forms.  These,  or  at  least  the  most  striking  of  them, 
are  here  grouped  under  the  eight  heads.  The  "  bull-roarer  "  is  a  com- 
mon accompaniment  for  certain  parts  of  the  initiation  ceremonies  and 
continues  to  be  used  throughout  the  Bunan.  Frequent  corroborees 
(dance  ceremonies)  also  are  held. 

Now  follow  various  movements  and  ceremonies  with  the  boys,  which, 
in  the  case  in  hand,  may  continue  for  three  or  four  days.  The  boys, 
till  near  the  end,  must  have  heads  bowed,  or  covered,  or  both  (except 
of  course  where  the  purpose  of  the  Bunan  may  require  a  temporary 
removal  of  this  restriction,  if  we  may  judge  from  a  similar  ceremony 
in  another  place,  though  Mathews  expressly  says  that  in  the  present 
case  the  boys  were  kept  in  this  position  till  near  the  end  of  the  ordeal). 
During  the  entire  ceremony  they  must  not  speak. 

Most  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  would  be  required  to  designate 
separately  all  the  observances  in  this  part  of  the  Bunan,  but  they  may 
be  condensed  and  summarized  as  follows:  — 

A.  Before  leaving  the  vicinity  of  the  circles  they  see  the  devices, 
peculiar  dances  about  them,  and  some  feats  of  jugglery  by  doctors  and 
wizards. 

B.  They  go  into  the  bush  where  they  observe,  amid  special  forms 
calculated  to  impress  them,  various  performances  that,  for  the  most 
part,  are  probably  symbolic, —  dances,  games,  pantomimes,  incantations, 
and  imitations  of  nature.  One  of  these  seems  unique  in  this  region. 
It  consists  of  swaying  motions  in  special  directions,  accompanied  by 
certain  sounds,  all  intended  to  imitate  the  "  breaking  and  recoil "  of 
waves  on  the  ocean  shore.     A  tooth  is  knocked  out,  with  peculiar  forms. 

C.  Finally  they  turn  toward  the  original  camp,  or  rather  a  new  one 
made  in  their  absence  by  the  women  assisted  by  the  men  left  behind. 
On  the  way  the  bull-roarers  are  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  novices 
for  special  examination, —  a  large  one,  the  jummagong,  used  in  the 
initiation  ceremonies,  and  a  small  one,  the  mooroonga,  for  general 
tribal  summoning.  The  boys  are  now  painted,  each  with  characteristic 
devices  peculiar  to  his  tribe  (probably  totemic  symbols),  and  assume 
the  belt  and  kilt  worn  by  men.  (The  men  have  been  painted  and 
decorated  earlier,  before  the  beginning  of  the  ceremonies,  and  now 
repaint  themselves.)  The  concluding  ceremonies  of  the  Bunan  gather- 
ing take  place  in  a  special  enclosure  near  the  new  camp,  and  in  a 
special  camp  for  the  boys  where  the  old  men  impress  upon  them 
certain  interdictions  as  to  the  flesh  of  animals   (probably  totems). 

D.  The  final  ceremonies  of  initiation  however  take  place  at  the  homes 
of  the  several  tribes,  when  the  boys,  after  a  life  of  perhaps  some 
months  in  the  "  bush,"  winning  their  own  living  (and  perhaps  receiv- 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  35 

ing  certain  instruction),  go  through  certain  forms  and  are  removed 
from  all  restraint,  but  not  from  all  restriction.  Before  the  latter  occurs 
the  boys  must  be  present  at  several  Bunans  or  reach  a  certain  age. 

3.  More  facts  as  to  the  primitive  secondary  school. —  In  his  arti- 
cle on  initiation  ceremonies  of  Australian  tribes,  in  Proc.  of  Amer. 
Phil.  Assoc.  37 :  54  ff.,  Mathews  tells  us  that  the  novices'  view  is 
concealed  part  of  the  time.  They  are  shown  marks  and  objects,  and 
taught  folk-lore  connected  with  the  nation.  There  are  burlesques  and 
songs  every  day,  and  there  are  dramatic  representations  of  a  crude 
nature. 

The  novices  after  initiation  are  kept  under  control  of  their  seniors 
for  a  considerable  time,  and  must  conform  to  certain  rules  laid  down 
by  the  headmen.  They  must  also  attend  one  additional  Burbung  (the 
name  of  the  initiation  ceremony  in  this  case)  or  more,  before  they 
are  thoroughly  acquainted  with  different  parts  of  the  ceremonial  and 
are  fully  qualified  as  tribesmen. 

4.  In  his  article  on  the  Toara  ceremony  of  the  Dippel  tribes  of 
Queensland,  Amer.  Anthropol.,  1900:  139  ff.,  the  same  author  says  that 
while  in  the  "bush"  the  novices  are  taught  a  mystic  language  under- 
stood by  none  but  those  who  have  passed  through  the  prescribed  course 
of  instruction. 

5.  Mathews'  article  on  Phallic  Rites  and  Initiation  Ceremonies  of 
South  Australian  Aborigines  (Proc.  of  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  39:6226*.), 
gives  these   interesting  items :  — 

During  the  long  sojourns  in  the  bush  (with  the  old  men),  after 
each  ordeal,  the  boys  are  permitted  to  see  or  listen  to  certain  dances 
and  songs,  the  secret  lore  of  their  forefathers,  and  stories  of  the 
traditional  customs  of  the  tribe.  A  mystic  language  or  vocabulary  is 
also  inculcated,  known  only  to  the  initiated.  Every  man  and  woman, 
all  animals,  plants,  and  surrounding  objects,  and  the  principal  places 
in  their  hunting  grounds  have  secret  names  by  which  they  are  spoken 
of  among  the  initiated,  in  addition  to  the  general  nomenclature  with 
which  the  women  and  children  are  familiar.  After  the  novices  have 
passed  through  the  final  stages  of  the  inauguration  rites  the  instruc- 
tion by  the  elder  tribesmen  is  continued  for  many  years  at  the  single 
men's  camp  at  which  the  catechumens  have  now  the  right  to  be 
present. 

During  initiation  in  the  bush  with  the  old  men  the  boys  are  shown 
the  sacred  bull-roarer  and  certain  crystalline  quartz  stones  supposed 
to  protect,  or  in  some  way  to  bestow  magical  powers  on  the  possessor. 

6.  We  should  also  note  the  following  items  from  the  same  writer's 
article  on  the  Origin,  Organization,  and  Ceremonies  of  Australian 
Aborigines,  in  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  Proc,  39:SS6ff. :  — 

Youths  are  instructed  in  customs  and  traditions  (perhaps  of  their 
conquerors  originally),  are  shown  many  things  entirely  new  and  are 
taught  another  language.  Personal  names  are  changed, —  kept  secret 
from  all  women  of  tribe.    Mathews  explains  a  part  of  the  initiation 


36  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

ceremonies  by  supposing  they  grew  out  of  circumstances  attending 
wars  and  raids.  He  suggests  that  ceremonies  are  kept  secret  from 
women,  because  in  war  women  belong  to  the  victors  and  would  carry 
the  secrets  to  the  enemy. 

He  says  also  that  pubertal  boys  are  deeply  scarified  on  shoulders 
and  on  muscles  of  breast  and  thighs. 

7.  A  Navajo  school. —  Mr.  Tozzer  of  the  Peabody  Museum, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  has  been  initiated  into  the  Navajo  tribe  of  Ameri- 
can Indians.  He  gave  an  account  of  initiation  ceremonies  in  that  tribe 
in  a  personal  interview, —  from  which  the  following  notes  are  taken. 

Before  puberty  children  pick  up  in  a  natural  way,  through  observa- 
tion, imitation,  and  showing,  the  common  facts  of  tribal  life, —  method 
of  weaving,  etc.  There  is  no  writing  and  so  no  formal  education  at 
this  period.  Young  children  are  present  at  a  ceremony  with  the  "  sand 
painting."  The  priest  utters  a  sharp  cry  of  the  god,  gives  a  drink 
from  a  gourd  containing  the  sacred  liquid,  and  transfers  his  hand  from 
the  god's  head  to  that  of  the  child.  The  latter  is  naturally  awed 
and  even  terrified  at  the  ceremony. 

There  is  a  nine-day  ceremony  called  the  Yei-bi-tsai  or  night-chant, 
during  which  boys  and  girls  are  initiated.  The  ceremony  used  in  initia- 
tion must  be  passed  through  four  times  during  life,  the  first  time  about 
the  age  of  puberty.  In  this  initiation  ceremony  the  boy  sees  men 
dressed  in  a  definite  order,  the  culminating  act  being  the  placing  of 
the  mask,  that  really  transforms  men  into  gods  with  the  power  of 
gods.  Certain  rules  must  be  followed  as  long  as  the  mask  is  on  (there 
must  be  no  talk,  etc.).  Before  this  the  novices  have  supposed  that 
those  who  appear  as  gods  are  real  gods  who  have  come  down  from 
heaven.  The  ceremony  gives  them  a  new  view  and  a  new  attitude 
toward  belief.  The  gods  are  men  personating  gods,  but  still  possessing 
the  real  attributes  and  powers  of  gods  when  dressed  to  represent 
them.  The  boys  also  hear  and  see  the  complicated  ritual,  including 
dances,  songs,  and  prayers,  the  most  vital  parts  now  for  the  first  time, 
and  all  at  near  view  for  the  first  time.  These  things,  or  at  least  the 
most  sacred  of  them,  take  place  in  a  circular  earth  hut  thirty  feet 
in  diameter,  called  the  Hogan.  Near  by,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
old  men,  they  practice  all  the  ritual,  till,  by  constant  repetition  through 
this  and  the  succeeding  initiations,  each  practically  covering  the  same 
points,  they  become  perfected  and  can  conduct  the  ceremonies  them- 
selves. In  the  Hogan  the  boys  practice  "  sand-painting  "  under  masters 
in  the  art,  and  subject  to  the  correction  (and  even  bantering)  of  master 
and  companions.  The  painting  is  planned  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  shut 
in  on  three  sides  by  feathered  poles  (representing  breath  or  spirit),  but 
is  left  open  on  the  east.  It  represents  the  gods;  every  line  almost  is 
symbolic.  It  is  used  in  healing  ceremonies  and  for  the  ceremony  with 
young  children  that  has  been  referred  to. 

The  real  initiation  consists  of  the  pollen  and  yucca  ceremony,  in  which 
pollen  for  the  girl  and  yucca  fibre  for  the  boy  are  transferred  from 


PRIMITIVE  TRIBES  37 

the  god  to  the  body,  touching  various  parts  and  even  making  some 
figure.  Girls  are  initiated  as  well  as  boys,  but  they  take  no  part 
in  the  dances  and  are  excluded  from  certain  parts  of  the  ceremony. 
They  are  seldom  in  the  Hogan,  except  for  healing  (no  one  enters  it 
till  the  initiation  period)  ;  otherwise  their  initiation  is  similar  to  that 
of  boys. 

8.  Other  descriptions. — "  Time  after  time,  when  the  Ertnatulunga 
(depository  of  churinga),  is  visited,  the  churinga  are  rubbed  over  and 

carefully  explained  by  the  old  men  to  the  younger  ones,  who  in  course 
of  time  come  to  know  all  that  the  old  men  can  impart,  and  so  the 
knowledge  of  whom  the  churinga  have  belonged  to  and  what  the  design 
on  each  one  means  is  handed  on  from  generation  to  generation." 
(Spencer  and   Gillen,    145.) 

9.  "  The  sustained  interest "  in  the  Engwura  ceremonies,  which 
"were  enacted  day  after  day  and  night  after  night  .  .  .  was  very  re- 
markable when  it  is  taken  into  account  that  mentally  the  Australian 
native  is  merely  a  child  who  acts  as  a  general  rule  on  the  spur  of 
the  moment.  On  this  occasion  they  were  gathered  together  to  perform 
a  series  of  ceremonies  handed  down  from  the  Alcheringa,  which  had 
to  be  performed  in  precisely  the  same  way  that  they  had  been  in  the 
Alcheringa.  Everything  was  ruled  by  precedent ;  to  change  even  the 
decoration  of  a  performer  would  have  been  an  unheard-of  thing;  the 
reply,  '  it  was  so  in  the  Alcheringa,'  was  considered  as  perfectly  satis- 
factory by  way  of  explanation."  At  the  same  time  we  find  that  some 
changes  have  been  made.     (Spencer  and  Gillen.) 

10.  Summarized  references  to  Letourneau,  with  some  ideas  sug- 
gested by  the  study: 

Art  instincts,— 47,  58,  69,  114,  125-6,   159,   187  ff.,  226.     See  also  37. 

Discipline;  parental  control, —  84,  139,  165,  169,  174,  179,  180,  181, 
199,  206. —  Success  in  moral  training  as  compared  with  scholastic  train- 
ing—54,  217-19,  238. 

Folk-lore ;  wandering  minstrels ;  story-telling  gathering's, —  126,  128, 
I3S,  153,  203,  230. 

Initiation   ceremonies,— 40,   41,    53,   85,   86,    134-5,    153-5,    207-8. 

Instinct  for  rhythm,  gesture,  etc., — 126,  158,  205,  213-4,  217. 

Memory,  prominence  of ;  weak  attention ;  attitude  toward  abstrac- 
tions and  generalizations;  rote-learning, — ■44,  54,  59,  127,  128,  203,  232, 
233,  243,-248,  249. 

Number  power,— 37-8,  47-8,  59,  67,  123-4,  146,  184,  200-2,  237. 

Observation,  imitation,  play,  participation,  etc., —  39,  46,  60,  66,  74, 
83,  101,  116,  118,  121,  122,  133,  138,  143,  150,  151,  153,  165,  174,  226,  238. 

Oratory  and  oratorical  training  appearing  at  an  early  stage  in 
civilization  with  freer  and  wider  political  status. —  84,  85,  126,  135,  176. 

Parental  education,— 40,  46,  53,  116,  118,  122,  133,  143,  151,  152,  153, 
165,   171,   174,   180,   198,  199. 

Special    arrangements    for   education, —  83,   84,    153,    171. 

Spontaneous  education, —  39,  58,  60,  66,  74,   101,   121,   134,   138,   142. 


38  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

As  civilization  advances  among  primitive  peoples  knowledge,  instead 
of  being  vested  in  old  men,  is  vested  in  special  functionaries, —  priests, 
-183. 

A  study  of  education  among  primitive  peoples  suggests  the  idea 
that  making  education  the  privilege  of  a  class  is  a  savage  trait,  or 
a  characteristic  of  early  stages  of  civilization. 


Ill 

SECONDARY  TRAINING  IN    HOMER  AND   HESIOD 

Leaving  primitive  life  of  to-day  and  primitive  life  of  pre- 
historic times,  which,  in  a  way,  explain  one  another,  we  take 
up  the  study  of  records  coming  to  us  from  the  border-land  of 
the  prehistoric  and  the  historic,  which  at  once  hark  back  to 
more  primitive  times,  give  a  vivid  picture  of  contemporary 
life,  and  look  forward  into  the  future. 

Educational  value  of  these  epics. —  The  Homeric  poems 
are  very  interesting  from  a  literary  view-point,  for  they  repre- 
sent the  culmination  of  ballad  literature.  For  our  present  pur- 
pose they  are  interesting  because  the  ballad  relics  that  they 
contain  give  us  glimpses  of  the  past  and  afford  us  some  clue  to 
the  educational  forces  at  work  in  early  times.  The  hints  as  to 
education  that  they  give,  however,  apply  particularly  to  the 
families  of  the  chiefs  whose  life  they  portray.  "  The  people's 
lot  was  hard,"  and  their  education  far  more  limited  and  primi- 
tive. Hence,  while  the  education  that  is  outlined  in  this  chapter 
is  of  a  primitive  type  and  will  apply,  in  its  general  features,  to 
the  whole  population,  there  are  many  features  which  concern 
only  the  special  class.  This  limitation  must  be  kept  before  us 
as  we  look  into  the  educational  agencies  of  the  times. 

Social  and  political  organization. —  Organization  and  ac- 
quisition in  Homeric  times  have  much  in  common  with  what 
we  have  found  in  previous  chapters,  but  we  have  evidently 
come  to  a  new  epoch.  Political  organization  is  more  complex. 
Several  social  and  political  elements  appear,  each  influencing 
thought  and  movement.  King,  council,  agora  have  become 
clearly  denned.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  general  body  of  the 
people  has  its  force,  however  small.  That  the  force  is  not 
insignificant  appears  from  a  brief  and  significant  Homeric 
sentence, — "  The  people's  voice  is  stern."  *     While  the  sev- 

i  Odyssey,  XIV. 

39 


4o  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

eral  factors  of  organization  are  by  no  means  coordinate,  the 
mere  fact  that  they  exist  is  very  suggestive  and  indicates  the 
appearance  of  new  educational  forces  and  wider  participation. 

The  family  also  has  grown.  The  Homeric  family  has  added 
a  slave  element  of  nurture.  The  slaves  were  often  high-born 
individuals  who  had  suffered  the  misfortune  of  being  kid- 
napped in  the  freebooting  life  of  the  nobles  of  the  period. 
Later,  when  formal  education  had  come  in,  they  were  often 
the  regular  tutors  of  boys.  Now  they  had  their  part  in  the 
more  informal  education  of  the  times.  With  this  high-born 
slave  accession  and  all  the  attendants  of  a  large  estate  the 
family  has  become  a  small  village,  and,  with  its  varied  inter- 
ests, is  broader  and  more  educative  than  the  primitive  fam- 
ily. 

Change  in  ideals. —  But  changes  have  gone  farther  than 
this.  Growth  in  ideals  is  seen  most  characteristically  in  the 
fact  that  the  community  unit  is  not  so  exclusive  as  in  earlier 
epochs.  While  we  know  that  it  ruled,  and  ruled  insistently,  at 
a  much  later  period  than  we  are  now  studying,  still  even  here 
we  find  the  beginnings  of  individual  initiative.  The  gens  is 
still  predominant.  It  moulds,  commands  and  transmits  as 
before,  but  with  this  important  difference,  that  the  individual 
stands  out  more  conspicuously,  pauses  to  consider,  puts  in  a 
protest  or  suggestion,  or  even  gives  signs  of  moving  in  an  inde- 
pendent course, —  a  spirit  that,  as  the  race  evolves,  is  to  add 
individual  development  to  mere  tribal  acquisition.2 

Educational  aim. —  The  educational  aim  is  thus  a  tribal 
one  still, —  to  train  a  worthy  member  of  the  tribe  or  clan. 
But  we  must,  in  addition,  look  for  greater  individuality,  and 
this  perhaps  comes  out  in  the  Homeric  ideals  embodied  in  the 
expressions,  speaker  of  words  and  doer  of  deeds;  good  man- 
ager and  manipulator  of  estate  or  office. 

Growth  in  race  acquisition. —  As  to  accumulations  and 
inheritances  in  the  various  lines  mentioned  in  previous  chap- 

2  Appendix  3,  17.  "  And  the  Assembly  swayed  like  high  sea  waves 
of  the  Icarian  main."  Iliad,  II.  "  Then  to  them  spake  Thoas,  son  of 
Andraimon,  skilled  in  throwing  the  dart  and  good  in  close  fight,  and  in 
council  did  few  of  the  Achaeans  surpass  him,  when  the  young  men 
were  striving  in  debate," — Iliad,  XV.  See  also  Iliad  III,  VII; 
Odyssey,  VI,  XV. 


HOMER  AND  HESIOD  41 

ters,  they  have  not  merely  been  increased  in  number ;  there 
has  been  a  great  change  in  spirit  and  scope.  Industrial  forces 
represent  a  wider  range  of  power s  and  thought.  Practical 
arts  show  a  striking  advance  over  previous  periods.  Recent 
explorations  in  Crete  and  Greece  have  revealed  surprising 
skill  and  perfection  here.  Applications  to  life  have  passed 
beyond  necessity  into  the  realm  of  luxury.  Work  was  so  thor- 
oughly and  massively  done  that  it  has  defied  time.  The  fine 
arts  have  shared  in  the  advancement.  They  have  taken  on 
new  forms  and  have  developed  a  more  pervasive  esthetic  feel- 
ing. In  fact,  over  the  whole  life,  even  the  physical,  has  come 
a  kind  of  esthetic  power  whose  real  significance  is  seen  best 
in  the  idea  of  symmetry,  which  Greece  is  eventually  to  bring 
into  education.4  Every  nation  has  some  art  instinct ;  with  the 
Greeks  it  first  comes  to  full  consciousness  as  an  educational 
force.  Religious  feelings  have  lost  something  of  their  awe 
and  sternness,5  but  apparently  nothing  of  their  impressiveness. 
They  are  freer  and  more  social.  Folk-lore  has  entered  the 
bounds  of  literature.  The  physical  life  has  become  larger  and 
finer  and  freer.  A  really  wonderful  civilization  has  been 
developed.6  It  is  even  declining,  so  that  the  period  immediately 
represented  by  the  Homeric  literature  has  been  regarded  as  a 
decadent  one.6  Early  historic  Greece  was  more  primitive  than 
the  Greece  of  the  Homeric  epoch. 

Educational  forces. —  The  educational  forces  at  work  are 
therefore  finer  as  well  as  more  inspiring  than  those  of  genuine 
primitive  life,  because  some  of  the  weights  have  been  removed 
and  individual  thought  has  more  outlets.  The  people  respon- 
sible for  this  have  gathered  up  the  best  with  new  genius  and 

3  Appendix  6,  19,  21;  Iliad,  II,  III,  VI,  XI,  XII,  XVI,  XVII; 
Odyssey,  IV,  V.  VII,  VIII.  XII,  XVII. 

*  Appendix  7,  9;  Iliad,  II,  III,  XVIII;  Odyssey,  IV,  VI,  VIII, 
XVII,  XXIII. 

5  Appendix  4,   18;   Iliad,  I,  II,  X;   Odyssey,  II. 

•See  Schliemann's  Excavations  (Shuchhardt),  and  Baikie's  Sea- 
Kings  of  Crete. 

Incursions  into  Greece  of  course  easily  made  possible  the  coexistence 
of  two  grades  of  civilization,  a  higher  one  belonging  to  a  conquered 
people,  a  lower  one  due  to  the  vigorous  new  people  pushing  on.  Under 
such  conditions  the  social  status  of  a  country  has  zeniths  and  declines 
in  its  cyclic  development.  At  a  later  time  the  Roman  Empire  illus- 
trated the  same  variety. 


42  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

have  made  it  better.  There  is  new  spirit,  new  outlook,  and, 
correlatively,  new  insight. 

Method. —  The  method  that  goes  with  this  new  educa- 
tion impresses  one  as  freer.  There  seems  to  have  been  less 
of  the  awesome,  less  tension  of  mental  and  physical  attitude. 
One  feels  that  the  province  of  rote-learning  has  been  narrowed 
and  that  the  process  probably  has  now  to  do  with  mere  form. 
But  educational  movements  are  conservative  and  retain  all  the 
past  in  method.  Modes  of  procedure,  like  formulae,  are  so 
deeply  imbeded  in  human  nature  and  so  impressed  through  ex- 
perience that  they  become  natural  modes  of  action  and  may 
hold  sway  far  more  widely  than  can  be  justified,  because  they 
do  not  enter  the  thoroughfares  or  even  by-paths  of  thought,  but 
work  in  the  province  of  the  unconscious  or  subconscious.  We 
shall  thus  find  each  epoch  clinging  to  methods  that  were  evolved 
under  other  conditions  and  should  have  passed  wholly,  or  in 
large  part,  with  the  conditions.  It  may  be  true,  however,  that 
each  epoch  contains  some  of  the  conditions  of  all  preceding 
epochs,  and  that,  therefore,  we  may  always  find  some  use  for 
all  ideals  and  methods  which  have  appeared.  They  form 
threads  in  the  weaving  of  the  new,  but  are  merely  contributory, 
and  find  their  mission  in  losing  themselves  in  the  new. 

Without  discussing  the  matter  at  great  length,  which  is  un- 
necessary, after  the  general  discussions  of  the  first  two  chap- 
ters, we  may  summarize  the  forces  at  work  in  this  new  period 
and  briefly  characterize  ideals  and  method. 

Education  in  Homeric  Times.7 

Prominent  features  or  aims :  —  Speaker  of  words  and  doer  of 
deeds.  Good  ordering  of  affairs  (at  home  and  in  the  state)  — 
Kindly  and  intimate  home  relations. 

No  formal  schools. —  Education  conducted  by  the  following  agen- 
cies: 

i.  Education  through  the  family.  Family  organization  patriar- 
chal,—  father,  mother,  children,  slaves  (chief  slaves  whose  lot 
was  most  happy;  common  slaves).  Children  remain  long  at 
home,  daughters  till  marriage,  sons  even  after  marriage.  Hence 
we  have  the  family  in  the  large  sense,  really  the  nucleus  of  the 

7  Appendix  i— 15,  (summary  of  references  to  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey 
bearing  on  the  different  phases  of  this  topic.) 


HOMER  AND  HESIOD  43 

clan.  Close  and  affectionate  family  relations  very  noticeable. 
Familiar  and  intimate  relations  of  selected  slaves  with  main  fam- 
ily; slaves  sometimes  brought  up  with  children.  High  considera- 
tion accorded  woman;  freedom;  equality  (but  relics  of  marriage 
by  purchase).  High  degree  of  culture  in  many  ways.  Table  man- 
ners however  very  crude. —  Large  estate  managed  by  household. 
Picture  of  life  of  nobles  charming,  enticing.  Sharply  contrasted 
with  that  of  common  people. 

Home  experiences  and  surroundings  many-sided.  Hence  exer- 
cise and  training  on  many  sides.  Children  participate.  Depended 
upon  especially  to  continue  line  and  honor  and  keep  up  life  of 
home.     Arms  inherited  and  used. 

Care,  nuture,  and  training  from  parents,  attendants;  sometimes 
from  guardians  and  prominent  characters  like  Phcenix.  Father 
chief  factor  in  boy's  life;  mother  in  girl's.     Tutelage  long. 

Home  training  supplemented  by  foreign  journeys  and  expedi- 
tions ;  guest-friendships,  comradeships. 

2.  Education  through  industrial  environment :  —  Many  occupa- 
tions of  the  simpler  sort, —  most  important  being  agriculture,  pas- 
toral pursuits,  carpentry  and  ship-building,  sea-faring,  freebooting, 
leech-craft,  seer-craft,  primitive  mining,  metal  work,  textile  work, 
household-craft. 

3.  Education  through  social  and  political  environment :  —  Polit- 
ical organization  simple  but  suggestive,  offering  considerable  oppor- 
tunity for  training:  —  1.  King;  2.  Council  of  Elders;  3.  General 
Assembly.  Power  in  each.  Power  of  people  indicated  in  Od. 
XIV,  "  The  people's  voice  is  stern." 

4.  Education  through  religious  environment  and  into  religious 
knowledge  and  history :  —  Many  gods,  concrete  conception ;  gods 
interested  in  and  intimate  with  men ;  confident  and  easy  relations 
of  men  with  gods ;  close  contact  influences  men  intellectually, 
morally,  physically ;  men  instructed,  endowed,  directed  by  gods. 
Gods  worshipped  by  vows,  prayers,  sacrifices.  Special  forms  of 
worship. 

Various  stories  as  to  gods'  history  and  relations  with  men. 

Fate. —  Spirits  of  departed. —  Omens. —  Dreams. —  Soothsay- 
ings, —  etc. 

Motives  in  attitudes  toward  men  and  even  toward  gods  often 
utilitarian.  Home  virtues  strong,  beautiful.  Community  virtues 
within  the  class  comparatively  high.  Chivalrous  conduct.  Larger 
community  virtues  low. 

5.  Education  through  esthetic  environment :  —  Palace. —  Altars. 
—  Objects  of  personal  and  home  decoration  and  use,  showing  great 
artistic  skill.  Note  especially  textile  work  and  metal  work.  Care- 
ful observation  of  nature  aided  esthetics  greatly. 

6.  Education  through  folk-lore  :  —  Songs,  ballads  ( foundation  of 
epics),  race  and  hero  tales;  practical  wisdom  accumulated  as  the 


44  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

race  grew  and  embodied  in  business  directions,  in  proverbs,  etc. ; 
careful  and  accurate  observations  of  nature, —  nature-lore.  Old 
men  "  wise  in  ancient  lore  "  much  sought.  The  bard  here  reached 
his  full  development  as  an  educational  force. 

7.  Education  through  physical  environment:  —  Plays,  games, 
dances,  training  in  arms,  etc. 

Method  in  education  :  —  Observation,  association,  imitation,  prac- 
tice, participation. —  Contrasts  between  child  and  adolescent  fre- 
quent; striking  characteristics  of  adolescent  noted. —  Attractive 
pictures  of  home  life.     Gradual  development. 

Suggestions  from  Hesiod  as  to  Education.8 

Additional  points  from  Hesiod. —  Still  no  formal  schools.  Gen- 
eral educational  forces  same  as  in  Homer.  But  Hesiod  gives  a 
picture  of  more  homely  life. 

Some  special  points  :  — 

A  definite  and  systematic  account  of  the  origin  of  gods.  A  clas- 
sification of  gods.  So  an  organized  body  of  religious  lore  to  be 
handed  on.  Also  a  systematic  account  of  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  man,  through  five  races  or  ages  named  from  metals.  In 
the  second  race,  the  silver  race,  "  for  a  hundred  years  a  boy  was 
reared  and  grew  beside  his  wise  mother." 

A  body  of  precepts  as  to  agriculture,  etc.,  and  a  calendar  in- 
dicating best  days  for  various  things.  Altogether  a  considerable 
amount  of  folk-lore  to  be  handed  on. 

He  speaks  of  the  value  of  rivalry,  necessity  of  labor,  and  effort 
for  attainment  of  virtue,  all  of  which  are  educational.  Hesiod's 
attitude  is  that  of  the  practical  man  dealing  with  every-day  con- 
ditions of  life. 

Education  of  the  adolescent  in  this  period. —  All  this  is 
of  much  value  for  our  study  of  the  evolution  of  secondary 
education.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  poems,  composed  for 
the  purposes  that  are  evident  in  these  cases, —  especially  poems 
evolving  as  the  Homeric  poems  have  evolved, —  would  go  out 
of  their  way  to  speak  of  education.  But  incidentally  (and  in- 
cidental things  are  sometimes  the  best  for  our  purpose),  we 
get  a  good  deal  of  information  as  to  the  influences  at  work 
and  the  subject  matter  that  surrounded  and  affected  the  boy 
and  called  him  to  occupy  and  use, —  a  call  which  was  enforced 
by  custom  and  by  the  definite  efforts  of  his  superiors.  From 
what  we  learn  of  the  habits  of  antiquity,  which  have  already 
been  treated  at  length,  we  know  that  the  secondary  boy  gained 

8  Appendix  16-22. 


HOMER  AND  HESIOD  45 

the  best  of  this  curriculum  that  was  pressing  on  him.  In  Ho- 
mer he  seems  to  be  regarded  as  a  new  individual 9  capable  of  a 
power,  and  requiring  an  education,  different  from  those  of  the 
boy.  The  relics  of  ancient  custom,  which  we  find  in  the  period 
to  be  treated  in  Chapter  IV,  also  show  that  he  was  expected  to 
have  a  training  of  his  own, —  especially,  though  not  exclu- 
sively, physical,  political,  and  religious  training. 

Formal  schools  there  were  none,  any  more  than  in  the  pre- 
historic period ;  individual  training  at  home  or  in  some  friendly 
court  or  by  some  striking  personality  form  the  very  simple 
organization  for  educational  purposes,  but  back  of  it  and  in  it 
was  the  social  organization  that  gave  the  larger  education.10 
The  practice  of  sending  the  boy  to  a  friendly  court  or  to  some  ' 
skillful  man  indicates  special  training  for  the  secondary  period, 
for  it  is  this,  evidently,  that  is  referred  to  in  the  various  state- 
ments in  question,  or  in  many  of  them. 

Homeric  education  was  not  primitive  education,  but  it  fol- 
lowed its  general  lines.  Where  it  followed,  however,  it  gave 
something  vastly  richer  and  broader.  It  seems  also  to  have 
added  one  new  feature.  Besides  the  group  of  teachers  who, 
as  before,  were  simply  men  of  experience,  headmen,  we  begin 
to  find  the  injjjvidual  teacher  with  special  qualifications,  a  man 
endowed  with  superior  fitness  for  teaching  young  men.  Shall 
we  say  that  private  education  has  been  added  to  public  educa- 
tion? 

If  we  should  go  back  to  primitive  Greek  education,  as  we 
may  by  Homeric  aid,  by  inference  from  stereotyped  forms 
found  in  historic  times,11  and  by  analogy  from  parallel  condi- 
tions elsewhere,  we  should  find  that  adolescent  education  here 
was  the  counterpart  of  that  described  in  our  first  chapters  in 
purpose,  in  course,  and  in  method,  which  culminated  in  striking 
initiation  ceremonies.  Greek  nature,  however,  may  have  thus 
early  relieved  the  austerity,  solemnity,  and  formality  which 
have  been  noted  in  primitive  training,  as  it  certainly  did  at  a 
later  period. 

9  Appendix  13,  23. 

"Appendix   10,  11,  22,  23;  Iliad,  V,  IX,  XIV,  XVI,  XVII,  XXII, 
XXIII;  Odyssey,  XII. 
11  See  especially  Chapter  IV. 


46  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


APPENDIX 

Some  references  to  Iliad  and  Odyssey  on  various  topics.12 

1.  Ideals  :  —  Iliad,  55,  174.  Various  parts  of  the  Odyssey  emphasize 
the  well-ordering  of  affairs.  Both  epics  are  full  of  passages  showing  ad- 
miration of  strength  and  stature  and  physical  beauty. 

2.  Social  organization:  —  Iliad,  43,  117,  137,  210,  262,  452;  Odyssey, 
14,  26,  37,  40,  41,  42,  50,  52,  68,  80,  84,  go,  122,  175,  178,  200,  219,  222, 
233,  236,  241,  242,  244,  245,  250,  264,  272,  283,  304,  305,  307,  310,  312, 
321,  353,  378. 

3.  Political  organization:  — Iliad,  2,  3,  16,  22,  24,  25,  27,  31,  45,  55, 
138,  139,  163,  299,  381,  458;  Odyssey,  15,  66,  89,  199,  201,  220,  244,  319, 
328,  383. 

4.  Religion, —  animism,  gods,  omens,  dreams,  seers,  etc.:  —  Iliad,  3, 
21,  22,  31,  47,  48,  86,  129,  192,  212,  236,  240,  266;  references  to  gods, 
passim;  Odyssey,  13,  20,  46,  166,  183,  246,  269,  304,  305,  308,  312,  318, 
368,  370,  379- 

►     5.     Instruction  by  gods:  —  Iliad,  192,  282,  348,  458;  Odyssey  88,  102, 
124,  278,  279,  317,  363. 

6.  Industrial  development, —  general  occupations,  arts,  crafts,  etc. : 
—  Iliad,  36,  38,  40,  42,  44,  47,  48,  50,  51,  55,  70,  71,  85,  112,  us,  117, 
120,  124,  135,  169,  204,  205,  209,  210,  218,  225,  239,  243,  277,  329,  337, 
365.  383;  Odyssey,  12,  14,  47,  52,  79,  102,  115,  189,  219,  255,  273,  274, 
297,  304-5,  373- 

7.  Physical  development, — >  games,  etc.:  —  Iliad,  45,  383-84,  458  ff. ; 
Iliad  has  abundance  of  passages  indicating  strong  physical  develop- 
ment; Odyssey,  6,  45,  89,  90,  91,  113,  118,  281,  291,  362,  373. 

8.  Folk-lore  and  means  of  propagating:  —  Iliad,  16,  39,  122,  167,  175, 
277,  381,  383,  384,  405;  Odyssey,  6,  10,  11,  37,  45,  52,  63,  112,  118, 
124,  175,  200,  242,  271,  273,  279,  280,  281,  291,  306,  353,  362,  376.  Old 
men  as  repositories  of  knowledge :  —  Iliad,  138,  183,  266;  Odyssey,  15, 

37h  384 

9.  Art:  — Iliad,  53,  61,  120,  215,  etc.;  Odyssey,  47,  90,  175,  199, 
269,  363,  372. 

10.  Parental  education. —  Close  relations  of  parents  and  children, 
etc. :  — Iliad,  2,  84,  119,  169,  225,  226,  259,  260,  266,  282,  351,  367,  395-6, 
411,  449,  459,  493;  Odyssey,  7,  14,  16,  48,  66,  67,  70,  84,  89,  170,  172, 
178,  189,  201,  209,  217,  219,  234,  241,  248,  252,  253  ff.,  261,  266,  292,  307, 
308,  353.  368,380,  385. 

11.  Education  outside 'the  home:  —  Iliad,  174,  175-6,  209,  226-7,  260, 
320,  395,  396,  452;  Odyssey,  234. 

12.  Child-pictures:  —  Iliad,  301,  314,  322,  367,  449;  Odyssey,  26,  380. 
Much  in  this  section  may  apply  to  social  organization.  Close  relations 
between  parents  and  children  are  evident.  Intimate  relations  between 
the  family  and  certain  slaves  also  appear. 

12  Reference  to  Palmer's  Odyssey ;  Lang,  Leaf,  and  Myers'  Iliad. 


HOMER  AND  HESIOD  47 

13.  Recognition   of   adolescent    power,    etc.:  —  Iliad,   209,   299,  411; 
Odyssey,  10,  12,  40,  108,  283,  289,  298,  301,  331,  355,  372-3. 

14.  Woman's  place:  —  Iliad,  173;  Odyssey,  12,  89,  91,  338. 

15.  Observation  of  nature, —  passim. 

Classification  of  Various  Items  Gathered  from  IIesiod  :  — 

16.  Family  life  and  relations, —  cruder;  picture  less  charming  than 
that  of   Homer.     But   he   deals   with   a  different  part  of   society. 

17.  Political  organization  has  evidently  advanced.  See  reference  to 
courts:  —  Works  and  Days,  37. 

18.  Religion:  —  Body  of  knowledge  as  to  origins;  evolution  of 
gods.  Classification  of  gods.  Body  of  religious  precepts.  Intimate 
contact  of  gods  with  men, —  gods  watch,  conduct,  help,  instruct.  Spirits. 
Ethical  life  rudimentary  in  some  particulars,  well  developed  in  others. 
Woman  placed  below  man  in  character.  Works  and  Days,  250-55, 
280-5,  3*5-35.  340  ff.,  375,  460,  705,  730.     See  also  Theogony. 

19.  Body  of  knowledge  formed  of  condensed  experience  of  the  race 
in  agriculture,  often  apothegmatic  in  nature.  Astronomical  facts  as  to 
times  and  seasons  for  agricultural  operations.  Nature  signs  for  guid- 
ance. Calendar-lore  and  superstitions.  Such  knowledge  naturally 
passed  on  by  oral  tradition.  Works  and  Days,  360-70,  380  ff.,  450, 
460  ff.,  775- 

20.  Body  of  knowledge  or  beliefs  as  to  evolution  of  the  human  race. 
Men  of  the  golden  race  became  genii,  constantly  present  with  men  and 
guarding  them. 

21.  Industrial  life  simple.     Agriculture  emphasized. 

22.  Education  domestic  and  through  environment.  Teaching  power 
of  poets  like  Hesiod.  Rivalry,  necessity  of  labor,  effort  for  attainment 
of  the  good  are  educational  stimuli.  Works  and  Days,  22,  40,  185, 
225-35,  285-90,  300-315- 

23.  "  Badness,  look  you,  you  may  choose  in  a  heap ;  level  is  the  path 
and  right  near  it  dwells.  But  before  virtue  the  immortal  gods  have 
set  exertion,  and  long  and  steep  and  rugged  at  the  first  is  the  way  to 
it,  but  when  one  shall  have  reached  the  summit,  then  truly  it  is  easy, 
difficult  though  it  be  before."    Works  and  Days,  285-90. 


IV 

SECONDARY   EDUCATION    IN    GREECE  —  EARLY    HISTORIC 

PERIOD  x 

Letters  the  dividing  point  between  primitive  and  historic 
education. —  The  invention  of  letters  marks  the  dividing  point 
between  primitive  education  and  early  historic  education  in 
Greece.  In  primitive  times  letters  were  not  thought  of.  The  lit- 
tle community  was  a  compact  and  exclusive  whole,  intensely  de- 
voted to  maintaining  and  advancing  its  life  and  excluding  from 
it  all  other  communities.  Communication  was  of  the  simplest 
form.  Written  symbols  beyond  the  rudest  signs,  such  as 
notches,  straight  lines,  and  spirals,  were  unknown.  Society  did 
not  feel  the  need  of  them.  The  germs  of  literature,  however, 
were  present  in  the  different  forms  of  folk-lore,  particularly 
ballad  forms.  This  folk-lore  was  easily  appreciated,  and  it  was 
readily  transmitted  by  oral  tradition. 

As  society  became  more  fully  organized  and  the  need  of 
communication  became  more  pressing  and  its  forms  more 
varied,  written  symbols  were  developed.  Crude  at  first,  so 
that  no  school  was  thought  of  or  needed  for  teaching  them, 
they  grew  in  value,  detail,  and  expressive  power  2  till  a  real 
alphabet  was  developed  and  true  phonetic  writing  and  reading 
were  possible.  Ballads  and  hero  tales  were  no  longer 
entrusted  to  memory,  oral  tradition,  as  during  the  period  when 
Homeric  and  Hesiodic  literature  was  forming.  Books  were 
made,  especially  books  of  rhythmic  tales,  and  inscriptions  and 

1  In  this  study  Athenian  education  is  taken  as  the  type.  Spartan 
education  is  very  interesting  from  more  than  one  point  of  view,  but 
it  concerns  us  little  in  the  direct  traditions  of  the  secondary  school. 

2  Explorations  among  the  Cretan  ruins  have  shown  that  long  before 
the  Homeric  period  a  "  system  of  writing,  syllabic  and  perhaps  partly 
alphabetic,"  existed,  and  this  discovery  has  placed  the  introduction 
of  writing  in  Greece  seven  centuries  earlier  than  has  commonly  been 
believed. 

48 


GREECE  — EARLY  HISTORIC  PERIOD  49 

other  forms  of  writing  were  common.  By  this  time  the  need  of 
having  all  members  of  the  community  familiar  with  the  pho- 
netic elements  of  language  and  able  to  read  called  for  special 
instruction  in  such  things.  Meantime  number  symbols  took  the 
place  of  the  rude  devices  noted  in  the  previous  chapter,  though 
the  first  symbols  were  very  cumbrous ;  these  too  and  the  needs 
to  which  they  ministered  suggested  formal  instruction. 

The  letter  school. —  As  has  been  shown  the  only  formal 
arrangements  for  education  in  early  times,  whether  in  the 
heroic  period,  or  in  the  ruder  times  of  later  Greek  life  on  the 
mainland,  seem  to  have  had  reference  only  to  the  adolescent. 
His  was  the  first  school,  and  we  have  seen  that  it  was  clearly 
defined  in  the  most  primitive  civilization.  But  there  came  a 
time,  before  we  get  far  into  the  historic  period,  when  the  neces- 
sity for  "  letters  "  and  written  speech  for  practical  purposes 
became  so  pressing  that  a  new  form  of  instruction  and  a  new 
school  were  developed,  the  school  of  "  letters,"  the  latter  term 
being  then  interpreted  broadly  enough  to  include  much  more 
than  it  does  now.  The  seemingly  simple  and  elementary 
instruction  here  involved  was  naturally  applied  to  childhood. 
Thus  formal  elementary  education  began, —  first  at  the  home, 
and  later,  as  society  became  more  specialized,  at  some  common 
meeting  place, —  called  significantly  axokrj  in  Greece,  and  in 
Rome  Indus  and  schola.  It  came  in  Greece  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, in  Rome,  three  centuries  later.3  Progress  in  "  letters  " 
was  gradual,  toward  more  and  more  complex  combinations  of 
symbols  and  of  thought  beneath  the  symbolism.  Progress  in 
the  mastery  of  letters  had  a  corresponding  evolution. 

Characteristics  of  the  Greeks. —  As  we  have  now  reached 
the  beginning  of  organized  education  in  Greece  it  is  well  to 

3  Herodotus,  VI:  27;  Thucydides,  VII :  29.  See  also  the  Thurian 
law  as  to  public  education,  6th  to  7th  century,  Diodorus,  XII :  12,  and 
Solon's  law  as  to  compulsory  education,  Plato,  Crito  50,  D ;  Plutarch, 
Themistocles,  10,  speaks  of  a  vote  to  hire  teachers.  Conf.  ^lian, 
VII:  15. 

Aristophanes  describes  an  interesting  school  scene, —  evidently  a 
typical  one.  He  tells  of  Athenian  children,  in  order,  distributed  ac- 
cording to  their  district,  marching  in  serried  ranks  through  rain,  snow, 
or  scorching  heat  to  school;  and  De  Coulanges  {op.  cit.  295),  remarks 
that  "  The  children  seem  already  to  understand  that  they  are  per- 
forming a  public  duty." 


50  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

glance  at  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  people  which  dis- 
tinguish them  from  all  other  peoples.  Only  in  this  way  can 
we  appreciate  their  provisions  for  education.  We  began  to 
note  these  characteristics  in  treating  of  the  Homeric  period. 
Some  of  them  come  to  view  only  in  the  later  Greek  period,  but 
we  may  summarize  them  once  for  all  here  and  apply  them 
partially  or  in  full,  as  the  case  demands.4 

Fundamental  ideas  and  characteristics  of  the  Greeks:  — 

1.  Sophrosyne  (temperantia). —  Arete  (virtus). —  Courage,  love 
of  country  (spontaneous,  but  not  deep). —  Eukosimia  (grace,  es- 
thetic expression  in  all  lines)  — Proportion, —  harmonious  develop- 
ment of  physical  and  mental  elements. 

2.  Innate  love  of  freedom  and  independence  (free  personality). 
Self  assertion. —  Development  for  individual  primary,  for  state 
secondary. —  Authority  of  the  state  from  the  individual. —  Individ- 
uality through  the  state  and  in  the  state  is  the  composite  way  of 
stating  it. 

3.  Versatility,  many-sided  activity. 

4.  Power  to  generalize,  idealize,  universalize,  and  power  to  make 
ideals  concrete  and  objective. —  Kept  going  out  from  simple  life  and 
ideas  of  truth  and  proportion  to  a  larger  life,  and  thus  heightened 
capacity  and  power. —  Intense  intellectuality  and  fearlessness  in 
taking  up  and  prosecuting  to  the  end  any  subject  or  investigation, 
regardless  of  issues. —  Love  of  knowledge  for  its  own  sake,  un- 
fettered by  form,  religion,  or  caste. —  Creative  imagination  gave 
form  to  narrow  realities  of  life. 

5.  Religion  not  abstract.  Gods  idealized  personalities  (friendly). 
—  Nature  and  life  full  of  deity. —  A  joyful  religion  of  freedom  and 
spontaneity. —  Religious  concepts,  both  the  simplest  and  deepest, 
open  to  all,  not  limited,  as  in  Orient. —  Saw  bright  and  cheerful 
side. —  Moulded  all  in  esthetic  lines. 

6.  Viewed  a  virtuous  life  as  a  beautiful  and  happy  one,  in  har- 
mony with  self  and  external  relations. —  No  deep  religious  sense 
or  reverence.  No  high  conception  of  abstract  duty.  No  strong 
and  steady  devotion  to  principle.  Not  conspicuous  for  solidity. — 
Not  highly  developed  in  truthfulness  and  other  social  virtues. — 
Subtle  and  genial. —  In  general,  showed  broad  and  varied  human 
sympathy. 

7.  No  genius  for  order  and  system. 

8.  No  strong  family  life;  woman  subordinate  and  inferior. 

9.  Education  instinctive  product  of  life  and  people, —  spontaneous. 

4  This  list  is  made  up  from  various  studies  of  the  Greek  people 
made  by  various  students  of  Greek  life.  Various  angles  of  view  help  us 
to  get  broader  and  more  suggestive  ideas  as  to  the  Greek  people  and 
their  qualities. 


GREECE  — EARLY  HISTORIC  PERIOD  51 

—  Also  outgrowth  of  theory  and  discussion.  It  was,  at  its  founda- 
tion, a  realization  of  capacity.  Central  idea  was  to  produce  a 
balance  in  the  factors  of  life.  Unity,  comprehensiveness,  propor- 
tion, aimfulness  are  conspicuous. —  Little  system  or  organization. 

Political  and  social  environment  of  Greek  youth. —  Keep- 
ing these  characteristics  in  mind  as  a  guide  in  interpreting 
institutions  we  may  now  consider  in  detail  the  scheme  of  educa- 
tion provided  in  the  period  under  review.  And  first  as  to  the 
ideal.  That  which  began  to  emerge  in  Homeric  Greece  has 
grown  stronger.  The  state  is  still  supreme,  but  the  individual 
has  grown.  In  place  of  a  single  ruler  and  his  advisory  coun- 
cil, or  an  oligarchy  of  rulers,  we  find  a  democracy  of  rulers, 
but  one  in  which  the  individual  is  still  dominated  by  the  state. 
The  individual  is  free  to  develop  himself,  to  initiate,  to  mould, 
though  always  in  the  line  of  characteristic  Greek  thought. 
Individual  development  through  and  for  the  state,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  realization  of  capacity  for  civic  life,  perhaps 
expresses  the  ideal  of  education  as  nearly  as  we  can  compass 
it.  Here  we  have  combined  the  two  forces,  the  enveloping 
state  and  the  developing  individual.  It  is  not  the  first  time 
that  personality  has  counted ;  Egypt  had  seen  much  of  it ;  but 
it  is  the  first  time  it  has  had  such  ideal  conditions. 

Aim  of  education  under  Greek  conditions. —  The  aim  in 
education  in  this  early  Greek  period  was  not  merely  to  train 
for  civic  life,  but  to  train  in  accord  with  the  spirit  which  has 
been  indicated  above.  The  ideal  could  be  carried  out  only  by 
the  training  of  a  well-balanced  individual  for  state  service. 
Body  and  mind  were  to  be  educated  as  a  unit.  The  esthetic 
principle  of  proportion  dominated  educational  thought,  as  it 
dominated  Greek  thought  generally. 

Characteristic  elements  in  Greek  education.  The  curricu- 
lum.—  In  connection  with  the  subject  matter  of  school  train- 
ing the  Greeks  had  a  fondness  for  a  terminology  of  a  very 
inclusive  nature  that  has  now  given  place  to  a  narrow  and 
prosaic  one.  From  the  earliest  times  they  were  devoted  to 
what  they  called  mousike.5     In  trying  to  interpret  this  term 

5  Plato,  Protagoras,  326;  Republic,  376  ff.,  404,  522;  Aristotle,  Poli- 
tics, VIII,  3:7-12.  See  also  chapter  on  Plato's  and  Aristotle's  Sec- 
ondary Schools,  Chapter  VI. 


52  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

we  must  divest  ourselves  of  all  preconceived  notions  of  the 
word, —  forget  its  association  with  our  word,  music,  or  rather 
forget  the  narrow  signification  of  the  word  with  us.  It  meant 
that  which  the  Muses  blessed  and  applied  to  various  modes  of 
expression  in  human  life, —  whether  mental  or  physical.  It 
included  rhythm  of  body  as  well  as  rhythm  of  language.  It 
applied  again  to  all  those  symbols  and  forms  that  give  us 
access  to  man's  spoken  or  written  thoughts,  and  finally  it 
applied  to  that  which  is  suggested  by  the  quantitative  relations 
of  society  (and  which  is  itself  the  basis  of  rhythm), —  num- 
ber. Mousike  is  seen  in  the  primitive  scheme,  but  it  became 
more  organized,  more  conscious  of  its  educational  functions, 
as  time  went  on.  To  the  simple  forms  of  life  to  which  alone 
the  early  boy  reacted  (if  we  except  the  germs  of  literature 
that  were  referred  to  in  earlier  pages)  were  gradually  added 
the  higher  forms  of  art, —  more  elaborate  esthetic  develop- 
ment in  literature,  color,  and  form.  Physical  education  was 
correspondingly  organized,  so  that  the  boy  took  up  at  the 
palaestra  6  a  regular  course  of  exercises  calculated  to  make  him 
a  perfect  physical  boy,  including  grace  of  carriage  as  well  as 
symmetry  of  body.  The  whole  curriculum  may  thus  be 
summed  up  by  the  two  expressions  mousike  and  physical 
training.7  The  course  evidently  had  a  double  aim,  first  to  give 
the  boy  practical  command  of  the  facts  of  life ;  second  to  culti- 
vate a  keen  sense  of  esthetic  values  expressed  in  grace  of  body 
and  grace  of  mind.  All  may  be  comprehended  in  the  words 
growing  citizen  worthy  of  the  Greek  state.8  Around  all  this 
and  permeating  it  was  that  education  which  the  boy  was  get- 
ting by  natural  means  in  the  life  of  the  community,  an  educa- 
tion both  practical  and  intellectual,  the  only  education  of  the 
earlier  times.  This  was  giving  him  increased  mastery  of  folk- 
lore and  of  the  form,  spirit,  and  special  characteristics  of  com- 

6  This  was  a  private  building  or  enclosure.  Secondary  school  boys 
were  trained  in  a  public  building. 

7  Davidson,  Aristotle,  72  fL  Lucian  in  his  Anarcharsis  gives  a  more 
detailed  classification.  Drawing  was  sometimes  added,  at  least  in 
later  times, —  Aristotle,  Pol.,  VIII,  3.  As  to  curriculum,  compare  do. 
VIII,  3:7-12.  For  matters  of  general  interest  as  to  the  curriculum 
see  Appendix  1,  2. 

8  Davidson,   op.   cit.,  36. 


GREECE  — EARLY  HISTORIC  PERIOD  53 

munity  life.  Esthetic  forms  here  had  a  very  natural  and 
effective  ministry.9 

But  it  should  be  noted  that  old  Greek  education  had  a  sub- 
stantial moral  and  religious  element  in  it.  One  can  feel  the 
moral  element  in  the  choice  of  material  for  their  simple  cur- 
riculum, in  the  motions  of  the  boys  in  and  out  of  school,  in 
the  strong  "  discipline  "  of  the  boy's  school  life.  It  was  this 
element  particularly  to  which  later  writers  harked  back  in  their 
lamentations  over  the  decadence  of  education.  As  to  religion, 
it  permeated  Greek  life.  The  gods,  their  symbols  and  their 
worship,  surrounded  and  influenced  early  Greek  life,  not 
oppressively,  but  impressively.10 

Methods  in  the  elementary  school. —  As  to  method,  read- 
ing was  taught  by  the  barest  synthetical  method,  writing  more 
concretely,  but  still  synthetically.  Arithmetic  was  presented 
more  pedagogically,  by  objects,  finger  symbols,  and  the  abacus, 
though  the  notation  and  symbols  were  so  cumbrous  that  only 
the  most  elementary  knowledge  was  practicable,  all  that  was 
necessary  in  the  earlier  and  simpler  times.  The  practice 
books  in  the  formal  language  work  were  Greece's  great  epics, 
which  admirably  met  children's  interests. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  curriculum  represented  a  natural 
development.  It  met  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  time  in 
an  effective  way.  This  is  true  in  a  sense  of  method, —  even 
the  part  of  it  that  applied  to  letters.  The  forms  of  language 
must  be  learned,  and  they  took  the  most  obvious  method  of 
learning  them.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  method  was 
pedagogical ;  it  was  not,  though  it  had  this  pedagogical  feature, 
that  it  gave  the  child  familiarity  with  a  great  literature  that 
appealed  to  his  interest,  before  the  forms  were  learned.  It 
was  the  product  of  an  unreflecting  and  unscientific  age,  before 
men  became  conscious  of  a  relation  between  child-interest, 
child  development,  and  method.  This  came  out  later  in  the 
work  of  some  of  the  educational  philosophers ;  but  the  formal 
method  had  become  so  fixed  that  it  probably  never  yielded  to 
the  pedagogical  insight  and  suggestions  of  reformers. 

9Conf.  Aristophanes,  Clouds  (Monroe's  Source  Book,  82  ff ) ; 
Plutarch,  Lycurgus;  Thucydides,  Paricles'  Funeral  Oration.  See  Mon- 
roe, op.  cit.,  15  ff. 

10  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  82  ff ;  Appendix  2. 


54  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Results. —  All  this,  as  has  been  indicated,  was  the  work 
of  early  school  years.  It  completed  the  form-work,  and  gave 
the  keys  to  the  recorded  inheritances  of  the  race  and  power  to 
record  current  additions  to  thought  and  achievement. 

Education  for  boys  only. —  Naturally,  in  accordance  with 
Greek  characteristics,  even  this  elementary  course  was  for 
boys  only.  Girls  were  restricted  to  domestic  life,  and  an 
extremely  narrow  domestic  life  at  that.  Greece  limited  her- 
self here  seriously  and  with  serious  consequences,  but  she  took 
special  heed  of  her  boys  and  made  education  compulsory  for 
them.11 

So  much  for  primary  education.  As  shown  elsewhere  it  is 
helpful,  if  not  absolutely  necessary,  to  make  brief  references 
to  this  phase  of  training;  for  to  understand  the  real  significance 
of  secondary  education  it  is  desirable  to  see  something  of  its 
setting  and  relations. 

Secondary  education. —  The  adolescent  boy's  education 
became  correspondingly  organized.12  But  formal  education 
had  been  completed  in  the  elementary  period ;  the  adolescent 
had  none  of  it.  He  doubtless  continued  his  interest  in  the 
literary  products  of  his  race,  whether  ballad-song,  hero-tale, 
or  epic,  and  he  could  recite  on  occasion.  Music  .still  occupied 
him,  but  now  in  a  more  technical  sense.  For  the  most  part, 
however,  he  gave  himself  to  physical  exercises  and  to  training 
for  civic  duties.  There  were  special  arrangements  for  his 
training,  but  aside  from  these  there  was  ever  present  the  potent 
training  of  a  Greek  environment. 

Method. —  The  nature  and  method  of  this  course  of  train- 
ing are  striking.  The  work  was  more  sustained  and  more 
serious  than  that  of  previous  years.  But  there  was  freedom 
from  irksome  restraint,  though  the  youth  was  constantly 
impressed  by  his  relations  to  a  closely  organized  community 
that  surrounded  him,  watched  his  movements,  and  guided  him 
with  definite  purpose  according  to  a  carefully  prescribed  gen- 
eral plan.  As  formal  education  of  the  school  had  passed  with 
the  elementary  period,  he  learned  by  seeing  the  things  them- 

11  Appendix  1,2',  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  82. 

12  Plato,  Protag.,  326;  Davidson,  op.  cit.,  85-90;  Laurie,  Pre-Chris- 
tian Educ,  276,  287;  Mahaffy,  Old  Greek  Educ. 


GREECE  — EARLY  HISTORIC  PERIOD  55 

selves  in  full  operation,  by  coming  into  close  touch  with  them, 
and  later  by  cooperation  and  service  in  them,  winning  the  nat- 
ural penalties  and  rewards  which  attend  such  service.  He 
learned  the  laws,  but  he  gained  a  finer  knowledge  of  them  by 
observation  and  doing.  Civic  duties  were  learned  by  social 
contact  and  participation,  and  military  duties  were  mastered 
by  a  similar  method  applied  to  that  field  of  activity.  This 
observation  and  practice,  however,  were  not  optional,  but  com- 
pulsory. The  great  national  games,  bringing  together  delega- 
tions from  various  sections  that  were  not  ordinarily  in  close 
touch  with  one  another,  brought  a  new  kind  of  participation, 
wider  observation,  and  broader  social  contact. 

When  we  come  to  physical  education  we  find  an  advanced 
course  carried  out  strictly  and  systematically  in  a  special  public 
building  under  a  special  teacher  supplied  by  the  state.  It  is 
probable  that  this  work  also  was  compulsory ;  it  was  so  in  early 
days.  The  games  again  offered  stimulus  to  physical  exercise, 
but  only  for  a  very  few,  so  far  as  actual  participation  went. 

General  estimate. —  Adolescent  education  as  a  whole  was 
thus  largely  through  observation  and  doing.  The  method  was 
concrete  and  suggestive.  The  aim  was  to  train  a  well-balanced 
individual  for  service  in  the  state. 

Special  ceremonies  characteristic  of  the  education  of  the 
adolescent. —  But  there  was  another  factor  in  method  and 
another  course  in  the  curriculum.  The  boy's  induction  into 
citizenship  was  marked  by  special  forms,  his  initiation  cere- 
monies.13 We  found  that  in  early  times  the  characteristic 
part  of  the  adolescent's  training  took  place  in  this  connection 
and  gave  him  mastery  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
knowledge-accumulations  of  his  tribe.  They  occupied  an 
extended  and  absorbing  period.  The  ceremonies  had  now  been 
reduced  in  detail,  but  they  still  must  have  been  a  not  unimpor- 
tant means  of  impressing  the  youth  who  were  thus  initiated. 
The  momentum  gained  in  the  ages  of  their  greater  prominence 
still  gave  them  meaning  and  force.14  They  served  to  clinch  the 
adolescent's  training  and  helped  to  make  him  a  true  Greek. 

13  Davidson,  op.  cit.,  89,  90;  Mahaffy,  op.  cit.;  Appendix  3. 
14 "  On  proof  of  his  birth  status  and  his  fulfilment  of  moral  and 
physical   conditions    prescribed   by   statute   or   common    law,    he   was 


56 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


General  characteristics  of  Greek  education. —  All  in  all 
Greek  training  was  training  for  power,  for  capacity,  and  not 
for  mere  acquisition.15  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  individual  was  still  distinctly  subordinate,  especially  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  period  with  which  we  are  dealing.  Thus 
his  range  was  as  yet  narrow.  It  was  limited  by  the  old  forms 
and  bounds  that  we  have  found  in  ancient  society  (see  Chap- 
ter I).  But  he  had  begun  to  have  a  broader  outlook.  Sub- 
ordination was  not  that  of  the  old  times.  The  individual  was 
gaining  a  new  position. 

Summary. —  The  adolescent's  education  may  be  summed 
up  in  the  following  outline,  and  may  be  compared  with  that  of 
the  elementary  period  that  is  given  beside  it. 

Education  for  Early  Period,  Before  the  Fifth  Century. 

Aims:  —  Development  of  capacity  of  the  individual  and  prepara- 
tion for  civic  duty  in  accordance  with  Greek  characteristics.  Har- 
mony and  balance ;  education  of  body  and  mind  as  a  unit.  A 
well-balanced  individual  for  state  service. 


Curriculum. 


ELEMENTARY 

Reading,  writing  and  sim-' 
pie  number  work. 

Learning  of  folk-lore. 

Music, —  simple,        strong/" 
songs  with  lyre  accom 
paniment. 

Physical  exercise  (inJ 
games  and  palaestra). 
Aimed  at  rhythm  and 
grace  and  soundness  of 
body, —  physical  excel- 
lence worthy  of  Greek 
citizenship. 


SECONDARY    . 

M         A.  Further      familiarity      with 
o  folk-lore    and    with    great 

u  literature  of  the  nation, — 

s  through  continued  reading, 

i  recitation,     etc.     Music, — 

k  more  definite  study. 

e  Religious  training, —  through 

observation  and  partici- 
pation in  choruses  and 
festivals. 
Civics — Observation  of  civic 
and  social  life  of  com- 
munity. Laws  learned 
and  practiced. 

registered  in  his  Deme,  his  hair  was  cut,  he  assumed  the  character- 
istic citizen  dress,  was  presented  to  the  Athenian  people  in  public 
assembly,  was  duly  armed  with  typical  Greek  weapons,  and  at  the 
altar  of  the  canonized  daughter  of  autochthonic  Cecrops  (a  Totem 
father)  took  the  time-honored  oath  binding  him  to  the  support  of 
his  country.  Social  as  well  as  religious  functions  attended  these  initia- 
tion ceremonies  which  marked  a  great  epoch  in  the  boy's  life."  See 
Appendix  3. 
16  Davidson,  op  cit.,  72. 


GREECE  — EARLY  HISTORIC  PERIOD  57 

Mastery    of    form,    spirit,  Gymnastics :  —  More  serious 

and  special  characteris-  and    sustained    course    of 

tics  of  community  life.  physical  training  than  that 

given  in  palaestra.  This 
course  given  in  gymnasi- 
um.    Also  games. 

B.  Admission   as   amateur   citi- 

zen with  religious  and  so- 
cial ceremonies, —  initia- 
tion ceremonies.  After 
this,  one  year  of  serious 
military  training  (com- 
paratively mild  in  Greece)  ; 
participation  in  festivals; 
one  year  of  actual  service 
on  frontier  of  Attica. 

C.  Full   citizenship.     Participa- 

tion in  all  civic  functions. 
Trained  by  state.     This  was 
the    graduate    course    of 
Athens. 

Method:  —  1.  In  elementary  education. —  Reading, —  synthetic 
method. —  Writing, —  imitation,  tracing.  The  pupil  made  his  own 
reading  book;  hence  reading  and  writing  were  correlated.  Arith- 
metic,—  sand,  counters,  abacus. —  Geography  and  History, — 
through  correlation. —  Religion  and  Morals, —  through  correlation, 
and  through  observation  of  and  participation  in  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity, in  an  elementary  way,  etc. —  Gymnastics, —  under  trainer. 

Imparting,  memorizing,  imitation  were  prominent. —  (Charts,  pic- 
tures, etc.,  for  teaching  probably  came  later.) 

2.  In  secondary  education  methods  were  generally  concrete  and 
suggestive.  Observation,  participation,  service  were  prominent. 
Some  memory  work  (learning  the  laws). —  Emulation  used  as  an 
incentive. —  Formal  training  in  Gymnasium  under  scientific  train- 
ing-master.—  Youth  was  generally  under  careful  surveillance. 
(Later,  young  men  had  a  civic  organization  in  imitation  of  state, 
giving  practical  training.) 

Notice  in  secondary  education  intense  physical  training,  absence 
of  formal  training,  freedom  from  irksome  restraint,  concrete  and 
suggestive  work,  social  contact  and  social  participation,  outward 
look. 

Initiation  ceremonies  ended  one  stage  of  training  and  introduced 
another.  They  impressed  certain  facts  of  the  past  and  future.  A 
characteristic  educational  force. 

Greek  secondary  education  peculiarly  adapted  to  adoles- 
cence.—  It  must  be  acknowledged  that  this  scheme,  both 


58  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

subject  matter  and  method,  was,  in  many  ways,  admirably 
adapted  to  accomplish  the  purpose  in  mind.  This  will  appear 
more  pointedly  from  a  study  of  adolescent  characteristics,16 
which  differ,  not  merely  in  degree,  but  in  quality,  from  those 
of  other  periods  of  life. 

If  we  examine  the  secondary  course  as  developed  by  the 
Greeks  in  the  light  of  these  characteristics  it  is  plain  that  it 
was  adapted  to  the  boy  of  secondary  age  in  some  noticeable 
features. 

i.     It  gave  opportunity  for  wider  and  stronger  observation. 

2.  It  gave  expression  to  adolescent  nature  and  activity  in 
many  lines.  Adolescent  physical  life  that  was  rampant  had  an 
outlet  in  healthful  physical  exercise  and  occupation.  Civic 
instincts  related  themselves  to  the  community  in  vital  ways. 
Esthetic  stimulus  and  patriotic  employment  gave  opportunity 
for  natural  development  of  the  emotional  life  of  the  adolescent. 
Stimulating  i'deals  were  all  about  him,  and  were  handed  down 
from  the  past  in  an  attractive  literature ;  they  could  readily 
objectify  themselves  in  plans  by  which  the  youth  related  him- 
self to  the  community.  Moral  life  again  had  a  field  for  spon- 
taneous growth,  under  natural  and  sensible  conditions,  but 
under  definite  guidance. 

3.  The  restraint  of  form  and  of  careful  regulation  and  sur- 
veillance was  there,  but  mingled  with  a  certain  amount  of  indi- 
vidual freedom  and  initiative.  Where  proportion  is  duly 
regarded  this  makes  the  best  combination  for  steadying  adoles- 
cent natures. 

4.  The  tendency  was  to  encourage  outlook,  rather  than 
excessive  introspection.17  The  facts  and  meaning  of  human 
relations  were  at  hand  and  could  be  realized  in  a  healthful 
way, —  by  interested  observation  and  participation. 

5.  Formal  training,  such  as  appears  in  a  formal  study  of 
language,  was  relegated  to  the  elementary  period  which  takes 
kindly  to  learning  mere  form. 

By  a  kind  of  intuition  the  Greeks  devised  a  scheme  of  adoles- 

10  The  author  has  summarized  adolescent  characteristics  gathered 
from  many  sources  in  the  Journal  of    Pedagogy,   Vol.   17,  pp.   114  ft. 

(1904-5). 
17  Davidson,  op.  cit.,  85-88;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  276,  287;  Mahaffy,  op.  cit. 


GREECE  — EARLY  HISTORIC  PERIOD  59 

cent  education  that  was,  in  a  rather  remarkable  degree,  suited 
to  the  secondary  school  age.  A  natural  development  along  the 
lines  it  suggested  would  have  perfected  the  scheme.  But  tend- 
encies were  at  work  that  served  to  transform  the  early  sec- 
ondary education  into  a  formal  scheme  of  training,  and  to 
emphasize  formal  and  unpedagogical  methods.  The  science  of 
education  lagged  behind  other  sciences.  Other  matters  were 
waiting  for  development,  and  attention  was  given  in  their  direc- 
tion intensively.  It  is  only  in  the  last  few  years  that  a  scien- 
tific study  of  the  individual  and  of  the  relations  of  the  human 
and  the  culture  subject  have  begun  to  make  us  sensitive  to 
adolescent  needs.  We  are  approaching  consciously  and  scien- 
tifically, though  very  slowly,  the  point  that  the  Greeks,  and, 
before  them,  primitive  peoples,  reached  by  intuition.  When 
we  actually  reach  it  we  shall  find  that  the  early  secondary  course 
contained  the  germs  of  what  we  are  seeking.  We  shall  be  able 
to  avoid  their  inconsistencies  and  fulfil  their  prophecies. 

APPENDIX 

1.  Elements  of  Greek  education. —  Plato,  Protagoras,  speaks  of 
early  education  at  home  and  in  the  school  and  goes  on  to  say,  "  When 
the  boy  has  learned  his  letters  and  is  beginning  to  understand  what 
is  written,  as  before  he  understood  only  what  was  spoken,  they  put 
into  his  hands  the  works  of  great  poets,  which  he  reads  at  school ; 
in  these  are  contained  many  admonitions  and  many  tales  and  praises, 
and  encomia  of  ancient  famous  men,  which  he  is  required  to  learn 
by  heart,  in  order  that  he  may  imitate  or  emulate  these  men  and 
desire  to  become  like  them.  Then  again  the  teachers  of  the  lyre  take 
similar  care  that  their  young  disciple  is  temperate  and  gets  into  no 
mischief;  and  when  they  have  taught  him  the  use  of  the  lyre,  they 
introduce  him  to  the  poems  of  other  great  poets,  who  are  lyric  poets ; 
and  these  they  set  to  music,  and  make  their  harmonies  and  rhythms 
quite  familiar  to  the  children,  in  order  that  they  may  learn  to  be 
more  gentle  and  harmonious  and  rhythmical,  and  so  more  fitted  for 
speech  and  action ;  for  the  life  of  man  in  every  part  has  need  of 
harmony  and  rhythm.  Then  they  send  them  to  the  master  of  gym- 
nastic, in  order  that  their  bodies  may  better  minister  to  the  virtuous 
mind,  and  that  the  weakness  of  their  bodies  may  not  force  them  to 
play  the  coward  in  war  or  on  any  other  occasion.  This  is  what  is 
done  by  those  who  have  the  means,  and  those  who  have  the  means 
are  the  rich;  their  children  begin  education  soonest  and  leave  off  latest. 
When  they  have  done  with  masters,  the  state  again  compels  them  to 


60  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

learn  the  laws,  and  live  after  the  pattern  which  they  furnish,  and 
not  after  their  own  fancies;  and  just  as  in  learning  to  write  the 
writing-master  first  draws  lines  with  a  style  for  the  use  of  the  young 
beginner,  and  gives  him  the  tablet  and  makes  him  follow  the  lines, 
so  the  city  draws  the  laws,  which  were  the  invention  of  good  law- 
givers who  were  of  old  time;  these  are  given  to  the  young  man  in 
order  to  guide  him  in  his  conduct  whether  as  ruler  or  ruled ;  and 
he  who  transgresses  them  is  to  be  corrected,  or,  in  other  words  called 
to  account." —  Protagoras,  326. 

2.  The  old  and  the  new. —  Aristophanes  in  his  Clouds  takes  up  the 
matter  of  education,  contrasting  the  old  and  the  new.  The  whole 
picture  is  of  course  one  of  irony,  and  though  the  description  of  the 
old  is  a  serious  one,  we  may  perhaps  question  whether  there  is  not 
a  temptation  to  exaggerate  and  color.  Still  the  account  is  a  useful  one 
to  use  in  connection  with  other  material.  Here  is  a  brief  summary 
of  certain  parts  of  the  passage,  showing  the  nature  of  the  old  educa- 
tion:—  The  boy  was  to  be  quiet.  Boys  from  the  same  quarter  marched 
in  good  order  to  the  school  of  the  harp-master  naked  and  in  a  body,  even 
if  it  snowed  "  as  thick  as  meal." 

The  master  taught  the  old  substantial  music,  not  present  quavers. 
Boys  were  to  maintain  a  virile,  modest,  respectful  attitude  during  in- 
struction, and  generally.  Bodies  were  not  anointed  below  the  navel, 
so  that  they  "  wore  the  appearance  of  blooming  health."  Strict  dis- 
cipline was  customary. 

3.  Initiation. —  At  eighteen,  if  he  fulfilled  requirements,  moral  and 
physical,  he  was  entered  as  a  regular  member  of  his  Deme.  After 
this  he  was  introduced  to  the  whole  people  at  a  public  assembly,  was 
armed,  and  took  the  oath.  His  induction  into  citizenship  was  attended 
with  religious  ceremonies  that  remind  us  of,  and,  with  other  attendant 
ceremonies,  are  probably  a  relic  of,  prehistoric  initiation  ceremonies. 
He  now  served  two  years  as  soldier,  the  first  year  drilling  near  Athens, 
learning  the  art,  and  taking  part  in  public  festivals,  the  second  year 
undertaking  more  serious  military  service.  It  was  evidently  a  "  harden- 
ing process,"  while  it  afforded  an  excellent  opportunity  for  becoming 
perfectly  acquainted  with  the  topography  of  the  country.  He  may  also 
have  taken  part  in  citizen  duties  in  the  city,  in  assembly  and  courts. 
At  the  close  of  the  two  years,  if  he  stood  a  final  test,  he  became  a 
full-fledged  citizen.  See  Davidson,  Arist.,  89,  90,  and  Mahaffy,  Old 
Greek  Educ. 


SECONDARY    EDUCATION    IN    GREECE  —  LATER    HISTORIC    PERIOD 

Contrasts  between  the  periods  of  Greek  development. — 

Greek  life  during  the  period  discussed  in  the  last  chapter 
represented  an  immense  advance  over  primitive  life.  The  city- 
state  had  been  developed  and  had  already  existed  for  an 
indefinite  period,  and  culture  forms  and  culture  material  had 
advanced  conspicuously.  But  life  was  still  simple.  The  social 
and  political  unit  was  narrow,  confined,  self-centered.  While 
individual  freedom  had  made  some  gains,  it  had  little  breadth 
or  scope,  to  such  an  extent  was  the  individual  dominated  by  the 
state.  Thought  had  certainly  been  broadened  and  fined,  but 
those  simple,  strong  primitive  ideas  that  we  have  noted  in 
other  chapters  still  made  themselves  felt  and  retained  much 
of  their  pristine  vigor.  The  Greeks  had  not  penetrated  and 
analyzed  the  world  without,  much  less  the  world  within.  But 
a  fuller  entrance  into  these  two  worlds  was  at  hand.  Psycho- 
logical development  and  historical  development,  reacting  on 
one  another,1  brought  a  new  epoch.  The  later  Greek  period 
was  characterized  by  wider  contact  with  the  external  world 
and  the  world  of  thought,  and  by  consonant  changes  in  men's 
relations  to  these  objective  and  subjective  worlds.2  Athens 
now  became  self  conscious.  As  a  natural  corollary  of  all  this 
the  individual  assumed  greater  importance, —  even  became 
dominant. 

Changes  in  the  later  Greek  period. —  In  connection  with 
this  evolution  four  points  need  special  notice  here. 

i.  Greek  education  had  strikingly  increased  in  recent  cen- 
turies.    Books  multiplied  and  became  the  natural  repositories 

1  It  would  be  interesting  to  follow  this  out  in  detail  and  go  further 
into  the  evolution  of  a  new  Greece,  but  it  would  not  be  germane  to  our 
main  purpose.     The  general  statement  as  to  causes  must  suffice  here. 

2  Appendix  I ;  Monroe,  History  of  Education ;  Mahaffy,  op.  cit.,  84 ; 
Kirkpatrick,  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24:453ff. 

61 


62  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  the  most  attractive  thoughts  and  experiences  of  the  race  and 
the  most  intense  thinking  of  the  time.  They  thus,  in  large 
measure,  took  the  place  of  oral  tradition  that  was  character- 
istic of  primitive  times. 

2.  Language  had  developed  in  literary,  artistic,  and  scien- 
tific lines,  becoming  more  expressive,  complex,  and  philosoph- 
ical. Hence  men  turned  more  to  the  world  of  books,  less  to 
the  world  of  things.  The  change  brought  with  it  two  new  edu- 
cational agencies,  one  found  in  contact  with  and  study  of 
books,  the  other  found  in  the  exposition  of  literature  in  the 
free  public  theatre  and  at  the  international  literary  contests 
during  the  celebration  of  Greek  games. 

3.  Music  and  art  had  changed  in  character.  The  signifi- 
cance and  value  of  detail  were  better  appreciated.  Technique 
and  modes  of  appeal  to  sentiment  and  the  emotions  began  to  be 
studied.  A  wonderful  artistic  sense  had  been  developed.  The 
broadening  process  was  fully  as  marked  here  as  in  other  direc- 
tions. A  new  world  had  been  discovered  in  art,  as  in  other 
fields  of  mental  effort, —  a  subjective  world. 

4.  Physical  training  received  less  attention  than  before; 
the  strict  traditional  regimen  had  been  relaxed,  as  related  to 
both  the  individual  and  the  state. 

The  underlying  causes. —  But  all  these  things  were  but 
secondary;  they  were  merely  phenomena.  There  were  two 
far  more  fundamental  matters  that  give  us  a  deeper  insight 
into  the  times  and  help  us  to  understand  their  spirit :  — 

I.  More  scope  for  the  individual. —  The  community  had 
ceased  to  think  so  fully  for  the  individual  and  to  impose  its 
dictum  unalterable  upon  him.  Tribal  standards  in  this  sense 
had  passed.  There  was  thus  more  scope  for  individual  stand- 
ards. The  old  unity  and  compactness  of  organization  had  been 
outgrown.  New  unities  were  forming.3  The  reforms  that  go 
by  the  names  of  Draco,  Solon,  and  Cleisthenes  represented  one 

3  The  new  of  course  required  a  long  development  before  it  could 
become  stable  and  take  hold  of  the  populace  sufficiently  to  produce  a 
solidarity  comparable  with  the  old.  Meantime  social  and  political  life 
were  liable  to  be  ragged  and  to  court  temporary  disaster.  But  men 
did  not  make  the  modern  mistake  of  postponing  democracy  because 
conditions  were  not  perfect.  Democracy  is  educative.  Rightly  guided 
and  balanced  it  grows  securely. 


GREECE  — LATER  HISTORIC  PERIOD  63 

side  of  this  change,  the  external.  But  there  was  another  and 
more  important  side,  the  psychological.  The  individual  had 
asserted  himself,  and  social  organization  had  become  secure 
enough  to  allow  him  more  latitude.  The  community  was  thus 
prepared  to  advance  to  something  higher  than  was  possible  in 
the  old  tribal  days.  To  these  changing  conditions  again  must 
be  added  the  wider  and  more  complex  national  relations  that 
called  for  new  power  to  direct  and  utilize  them. 

The  Greek  citizen  must  be  prepared  to  meet  these  broader 
relations  with  the  outside  world  and  the  opportunities  they 
offered  for  diplomacy  and  personal  and  civic  advancement 
through  national  and  international  politics.  He  must  meet  also 
the  still  greater  demands  that  a  new  era  of  thought  and  indi- 
vidual freedom  made  upon  him.  To  do  this  he  must  have 
power  of  independent  thought,  power  to  analyze,  compare, 
judge,  discuss,  power  to  throw  his  personality  into  new  prem- 
ises and  syntheses.  In  a  word,  he  must  have  dialectic  power, 
if  the  community  and  the  individual  were  to  rise  above  the  level 
of  the  past.  It  might  be  often  at  the  expense  of  individual 
damage  and  even  destruction,  if  not  steadied  by  the  balance  of 
a  just  education  that  it  was  the  business  of  the  state  to  give. 
But  these  are  mere  accidents  for  which  a  great  evolutionary 
movement  is  not  responsible,  and  for  which  it  does  not  stay. 
The  dialectic  method  was  a  natural  and  logical  growth  and  a 
vital  condition  for  working  out  the  genius  of  the  new  epoch. 
Socrates  was  not  so  much  its  discoverer  as  a  typical  exponent 
of  what  the  times  produced.  Some  of  his  reported  discussions 
represent  a  drama  in  which  tradition  and  newly  springing  inde- 
pendence played  leading  roles.  This  represented  the  internal 
side  of  the  change, —  the  psychological. 

These  conditions  required  a  new  linguistic  development,  if 
the  Greek  citizen  of  the  day  was  to  assert  himself  and  meet 
the  situation  to  which  forces  without  and  within  were  direct- 
ing him.  He  must  have  power  to  formulate  and  express  his 
thought  effectively,  if  the  power  of  dialectic  was  to  have  due 
issue  in  swaying  men's  minds.  This  was  a  sine  qua  non  for 
personal  advancement. 

2.  The  individual  the  center. —  All  this  naturally  modi- 
fied Greek  ideals.     In  the  buoyancy  of  the  new  times,  and 


64  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

under  the  spur  of  individual  freedom,  whose  very  newness 
excited  the  adolescent  spirit  of  the  nation,  the  tendency  was 
toward  individualism, —  not  the  individual  for  the  state,  as 
formerly,  but  the  individual  for  himself,  and  the  state  also 
for  him.  This  made  the  individual  the  center  of  culture  and 
education  and  led  him  to  lay  siege  to  everything  that  would 
minister  to  his  power  and  enjoyment.4  The  ideal  was  most 
sensitively  balanced  and  led  to  evil  as  easily  as  to  good  —  more 
easily,  because  the  ideal  was  only  a  partial  one.  Hence  the 
brilliance  and  tragedy  of  later  Greek  history.  From  the  same 
conditions  also  came  that  other  individualism  whose  summum 
bonum  was  cultivated  leisure  (diagoge),  which  has  given  us 
charming  pictures  of  classical  life,  though  marred  by  civic 
inaction  and  the  suggestion  of  decadence. 

Graphic  comparison  of  early  and  later  periods. —  Looking 
at  the  period  as  a  whole,  from  about  the  sixth  century  to  the 
third,  we  may  make  a  brief  comparative  summary  of  its  char- 
acteristics as  follows : 

EARLY  PERIOD  5  LATE  PERIOD  5 

1.  City     state     small.     Citizens      i.  City    state    larger.     Citizen- 

few.     An  aristocracy.  ship    broader.     Intense   de- 

mocracy. 

2.  Eternal  relations  simple,  nar-      2.  External    relations    broader, 

row  ;  internal  relations  sim-  more  complex.     Wider  con- 

pie,  tact  with  other  civilizations. 

Internal  relations  broader, 
more  complicated.  Many- 
sided  life. 

3.  Thought  simple,  concrete,  ob-     3.  Thought  more  complex,  deal- 

jective,  outward.  ing  more   with   details   and 

meanings  of  things ;  sub- 
jective. 

4  We  find  here  that  the  new  features  in  social  organization  and  the 
new  element  in  method  beginning  to  appear  in  the  Homeric  epoch,  have 
reached  their  outermost  limit.  The  new  outdid  itself  and,  in  a  way, 
developed  a  virtue  into  a  vice.  But  this  must  not  obscure  the  char- 
acteristic contributions  that  Greece  made  to  education, —  individual  in- 
itiative and  opportunities  for  individual  development. 

6  The  generalizations  are  made  up  from  many  sources, —  Mahaffy, 
op.  et  loc.  cit.;  Kirkpatrick,  loc.  cit.;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  306  ff. ;  Monroe, 
op.  cit.,  84  ff.,  91  ff. ;  De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  475  et  al. ;  Aristotle, 
'Pol.,  VIII,  1:3;  Plato,  Rep.,  499,  524,  527-30,  532-3;  Appendix  I,  2,  3. 
See  also  Botsford  and  Sihler,  Hellenic  Civilization. 


GREECE  — LATER  HISTORIC  PERIOD 


65 


4..  Literature  expressed  great  ob- 
jective facts,  in  simple  nar- 
rative, or  in  simple  song. 

5.  Art  also  more  or  less  objec- 

tive, representing  general- 
ized ideas  in  concrete  form. 
Appealed  by  wholes. 

6.  Norms  external,  in  tradition. 


7.  State  supreme. 


6. 


7: 


Literature  more  artistic, 
more  philosophical,  dealing 
more  with  inner  meanings 
and  relations. 

In  art  more  attention  to  de- 
tail and  effect  of  detail ; 
more  attention  to  expres- 
sion  of   emotions. 

Norms  within,  reasoned  for 
self;  transferred  to  others 
through  special  method,  not 
by  the  fiat  of  tradition  alone. 

Individual  supreme. 


Summary  of  the  demands  of  the  new  period. —  Altogether 
then  the  new  period  shows  a  new  attitude  toward  inheritances, 
more  individuality,  more  personal  responsibility,  greater  free- 
dom of  thought.6  New  relations,  new  interests,  new  ambi- 
tions were  pressing  the  young  Athenian  forward.  With  these 
changes  had  come  a  richer  growth  of  acquisition  in  all  direc- 
tions. New  studies  and  new  methods  also  demanded  admis- 
sion to  the  educational  program.  Leadership,  which  might  be 
the  aim  of  any  true  Athenian,  depended  upon  the  effective  use 
of  words, —  not  the  old  natural  language  power,  but  a  studied 
skill.  The  orator  became  an  ideal.  Audiences,  whether  of 
the  spoken  or  of  the  written  word,  were  more  intelligent,  more 
critical,  more  exacting,  and  acted  as  an  external  pressure  to 
supplement  the  inner  stimulus  that  came  to  the  individual  from 
his  higher  mental  development.  Thus  larger  intellectual  attain- 
ment, more  resources  for  instructing  and  illustrating,  wider 
and  more  technical  language  power  were  needed. 

A  new  curriculum  and  a  new  method. —  As  to  the  schools, 
a  broad  and  rigid  course  in  linguistics,  involving  a  knowledge  of 
the  whole  realm  of  literature,  was  the  natural  means  of  gain- 
ing the  desired  end, —  training  in  language  such  as  had  never 
existed  before.  The  sciences  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  date 
from  this  time.  The  two-fold  musice  that  had  formed  a  single 
unity  in  the  old  curriculum  was  divided.  Each  of  its  parts  had 
become  so  large  that  it  formed  a  distinct  department  in  educa- 

6  See  De  Coulanges'  Ancient  City  (one  of  the  most  striking  and 
appreciative  studies  yet  made),  470  ff. 


66  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

tion.  "  Letters  "  and  "  music  "  were  henceforth  distinct  in  at 
least  one  great  series  of  schools. 

Dialectic. —  But  ideas  must  come  before  expression.  For 
expression  a  study  of  dialectics  was  needed  to  give  it  point  and 
effect.  The  new  linguistic  training  might  afford  opportunity 
for  much  of  this,  but  it  must  be  supplemented  by  the  other 
study  that  partook  of  the  nature  of  psychology  and  philosophy 
and  provided  both  matter  and  method. 

A  new  curriculum  had  thus  come  into  being,  consisting  of 
the  old  studies  developed  and  broadened  and  the  new  studies 
rising  out  of  the  new  conditions.  Some  one  has  said  that  the 
early  Greek  curriculum  produced  habits,  but  that  there  was 
needed  a  further  education  on  the  intellectual  side  to  guide, 
and  free  habits.  The  best  of  the  new  could  do  this.  The 
whole  of  the  new  was  not  found  in  any  one  place,  and  it  was 
found  in  few  schools,  but  it  was  a  part  of  Greek  life  and  was 
calculated  to  give  a  more  extensive  and  intensive  intellectual 
development  and  to  produce  technical  skill. 

New  teachers. —  But  new  courses  and  new  methods  re- 
quired new  teachers.  These  were  the  sophists.  Their  appear- 
ance was  not  accidental  nor  sudden.  They  grew  nat- 
urally out  of  the  new  times.  They  offered  both  wide  knowl- 
edge of  things  that  were  attracting  attention,  and  train- 
ing in  thought,  thought  method,  and  expression.  Their  cur- 
riculum, if  it  could  be  called  such,  was  a  very  inclusive  and 
ambitious  one,  covering  the  whole  range  of  knowledge.  Their 
aim  was  to  make  the  individual  supreme.  As  ever,  there  were 
two  classes  of  teachers, —  those  who  were  thorough  and  pro- 
fessional, and  those  who  were  superficial  and  unprofessional. 
The  former  aimed  at  a  thoroughly  trained  man  and  founded 
their  work  on  principles.7  The  others  aimed  at  immediate 
individual  success,  made  much  of  short-cut  methods,  and  by 
their  agnostic  attitude  tended  to  upset  absolute  values  and 
standards  and  make  each  man  his  own  norm.  They  were  the 
proprietors  of  the  "  thinking-shops."  8 

7  As  to  the  two  classes  of  sophists,  and  sophists  generally,  see  Ap- 
pendix i,  2,  3;  Davidson,  op.  cit.,  ioi  fif. ;  Kirkpatrick,  Laurie,  Mahaflfy, 
op.  et  loc.  cit.;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  68,  85,  95  ff. ;  Plato,  Rep.,  493,  496,  497. 

8  "  I  will  go  myself  to  the  thinking-shop  and  get  taught," —  Monroe, 
op.  cit.,  68. 


GREECE  — LATER  HISTORIC  PERIOD  67 

Two  aims. —  We  can  make  our  ideas  of  the  new  education 
clearer  and  more  definite  by  analyzing  it  and  distinguishing  its 
aims.  In  the  course  of  our  discussion  two  ideals  have  been 
prominent  - 1,  rhetorical  supremacy,  command  of  winning 
forms ;  2,  intellectual  supremacy,  power  to  discuss  reasons  and 
to  initiate.  Correlatively  there  were  two  great  objects  in 
life  -  1,  influence  in  public  life,  power  to  impress  and  express, 
in  which  self  was  the  center;  2,  cultured  leisure,  in  which 
again  self  was  the  center.  To  be  just  we  should  perhaps  dis- 
cover a  third  object  that  would  combine  the  other  two.  These 
objects  defined  educational  aims. 

Two  series  of  schools,  1.  Schools  of  Rhetoric. —  It  was 
thus  natural  that  the  Sophist  schools  should  split  into  two  great 
series:-  1.  Schools  of  Rhetoric,  the  best  type  of  which  is 
found  in  the  school  of  Isocrates.9  This  great  teacher  built  on  a 
good  secondary  course  of  training  in  grammar  and  literature, 
taken  before  entering  his  school.  He  believed  that  higher  edu- 
cation should  be  "practical,  rational,  comprehensive,"  and  he 
emphasized  training  in  three  lines, —  defining  objects,  adapting 
means,  and  developing  power  through  effort.  These  schools 
of  rhetoric,  with  their  presuppositions,  took  the  most  character- 
istic parts  of  the  sophist  course,  linguistic  studies,  general  infor- 
mation studies,  and  oratory.  Linguistics  were  the  core  of  the 
curriculum. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  from  the  statement  that  a 
rhetorical  school  built  its  work  upon  a  course  of  secondary 
training,  that  nothing  inside  the  school  was  of  a  secondary 
nature.  It  must  have  been  true  that  instruction  in  at  least 
some  of  these  schools  was  partly,  and  probably  largely,  of  a 
secondary  nature,  just  as  a  large  part  of  the  early  university 
course  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  of  this  character  and  was 
applied  to  boys  in  their  early  'teens. 

Method. —  Method  in  these  schools  was  new  in  some  of 
its  elements.  It  probably  still  included  the  traditional  prin- 
ciples of  imparting  information  and  memorizing;  but  in  addi- 
tion there  was  now  built  up  an  elaborate  system  of  language 
training,  including  imitation,  practice,  and  drill,  with  abundant 

9  Appendix  4 ;  Laurie,  op.  et.  loc.  cit.;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  98,  100,  105-108. 


68  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

rules.  Formal  language  work  was  elaborated  with  much 
detail.10 

2.  Schools  of  philosophy. —  In  these  schools  the  con- 
spicuous leaders  were  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle.  Plato 
and  Aristotle  tried  to  outline  a  state  and  a  system  of  educa- 
tion that  would  unite  individual  and  community  interests.11 
Their  work  as  a  whole  was  opposed  to  the  formal  work  of  the 
other  sophists.  It  emphasized  the  development  of  power 
rather  than  mere  communication  and  class-room  mechanics, 
the  intellect  rather  than  memory,  device,  and  formal  practice. 
Here  were  developed  those  studies  and  methods  that  may  be 
characterized  as  philosophical  and  scientific.  They  applied  to 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  of  both  the  outer  and  the  inner 
world. 

It  was  in  connection  with  this  class  of  schools  particularly, 
though  not  exclusively,  that  one  of  the  characteristic  feelings 
of  the  Greek  race  came  into  the  ideals  of  education.  The  true 
Greek  had  a  very  keen  idea  as  to  what  accorded  with  Greek 
dignity.  Certain  things  were  "  liberal,"  worthy  of  a  free- 
man ;  other  things  were  "  illiberal,"  and  to  be  avoided.  Any- 
thing that  was  extreme  or  of  a  mercenary  character  was  illib- 
eral. The  mean  in  the  non-commercial  pursuits  and  those  that 
involved  higher  intellectuality  was  a  just  object  of  effort. 
These  ideas  colored  Greek  education  and  were  especially  promi- 
nent in  Plato  and  Aristotle.12 

Method. —  Method  here  was  decidedly  less  formal  than  in 
the  first  series  of  schools  and  was  better,  but  not  perfectly, 
adapted  to  adolescent  interests.  It  involved  thought  work 
(dialectic),  active  participation  of  both  pupil  and  teacher, 
familiar  converse,  lectures.  Method  thus  became  more 
pedagogical. 

If  we  should  attempt  to  specify  the  feature  of  Greek  educa- 

10Conf.  Plato,  Protag.,  326. 

If  we  should  consider  method  more  in  detail  and  in  its  wider  sig- 
nification, as  it  showed  itself  in  later  Greek  education,  we  might  imagine 
we  _  had  reached  modern  days.  Prize  contests,  examinations,  and 
various  student  customs  suggest  that  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  devise 
anything  new  as  to  externals. 

11  Monroe,  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Education. 

12 Aristotle,  Pol.;  Plato,  Rep.;  Conf.  Cicero,  De  Of.,  1:42. 


GREECE  — LATER  HISTORIC  PERIOD  69 

tion  that  was  most  significant  for  the  future  we  should  most 
appropriately  single  out  that  element  of  method,  or  form  of 
method,  that  is  called  dialectic.  It  has  been  characterized  gen- 
erally from  the  point  of  view  of  results.  It  is  better  defined 
as  a  process.  To  describe  it  as  the  questioning  method  is  very 
superficial.  Dialectic  involved,  first,  development  of  the  indi- 
vidual as  opposed  to  mass  teaching.  In  the  second  place,  it 
required  participation  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  In  the  third 
place,  and  most  significantly,  it  led  to  investigation  of  facts 
ami  problems  by  healthful  and  stimulating  inductive  methods 
till  the  ultimate  truth  was  reached.  Speaking  generally  it  was 
of  course  all  a  questioning  process,  but  of  a  very  comprehensive 
nature.  It  was  systematic,  scientific,  thought-stimulating.  It 
involved  rigid  analysis  as  a  basis  for  new  and  sounder  synthesis. 
In  this  way  it  exercised  all  the  powers  and  brought  real  devel- 
opment, both  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  individual  and  from 
that  of  the  subject  studied.  For  the  first  time  then  the  old 
process  of  rote-learning  had  been  seriously  invaded.  While 
the  ancient  method  was  destined  to  be  used  for  some  purposes 
and  to  have  large  influence  in  some  cases  and  in  some  periods, 
the  new  method  was  to  have  increasing  influence  till  it  occupied 
the  field.13 

Differentiation  in  curricula. —  At  first  secondary  and 
higher  education  were  perhaps  not  very  distinct.  It  may  all 
be  designated  as  higher  education.  But  in  time  there  probably 
came  a  differentiation,  so  that  the  secondary  curriculum  may 
be  regarded  as  approximating  the  following  form : 14 

13  The  method  may  be  described  a  little  more  in  detail  as  follows :  — 
It  is  proposed  to  discover  the  truth  in  a  certain  direction.  At  the  outset 
a  question  is  raised  as  to  the  first  basal  fact  from  which  we  may  pro- 
ceed toward  the  end  in  view.  This  may  be  reached  directly,  or  indi- 
rectly by  first  removing  a  false  assumption  or  opinion.  Then  the  sec- 
ond fact  that  will  serve  the  main  purpose  is  discovered  by  a  similar 
process  of  investigation.  And  so  we  proceed  by  a  process  of_  investiga- 
tion, elimination,  suggestion,  construction  till  the  final  result  is  reached, 
which  represents  in  a  sense  the  summation  of  all  the  partial  results 
attained  along  the  way.  Dialectic  is  the  parent  of  all  objective  methods, 
whether  characterized  as  inductive,  developmental,  or  laboratory. 

1*  Aristotle,  Pol.,  VIII,  3:7-12;  Plato,  Rep.,  404,  424,  427-30,  432-3  J 
Laurie,  op.  cit.,  306  ff.;  Mahaffy,  op.  cit..  53  ff.,  57  ff.,  76,  78  ff. ;  Kirk- 
patrick,  in  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24:  453  ff-  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  different  schools  and  classes  of  schools  probably  made  special 
selections  and  gave  different  emphases. 


;o  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

A.  Linguistics, —  grammar,  literature,  elementary  rhetoric. 

B.  Science, —  arithmetic,    geometry,    astronomy,    geography.     Ele- 

mentary,   uncorrelated,    informational    work.     In    later    ado- 
lescence  there   probably   came   more   systematic   science   and 

C.  The  introduction  to  philosophy,  dialectics. 

D.  Music.     More  emotional.     More  finesse  than  formerly. 

E.  Instruction  through  theatre  and  games. 

F.  Physical  training,  changed  in  form  and  aims.     Less  purposeful 

and  strenuous.  Proportion  between  bodily  and  mental  educa- 
tion broken.  Man  and  citizen  separated. 
Method :  —  In  linguistics  the  so-called  classical  method,  formal, 
full  of  "  exercises "  and  drills.  The  study  of  elementary 
science  was  correlated  with  that  of  linguistics.  It  was  acci- 
dental. (The  study  of  advanced  science  and  philosophy  in 
later  adolescence  was  conducted  by  inductive  and  dialectic 
methods.) 

Greek  contributions  to  education. —  Formal  schools  were 
now  established  for  both  the  elementary  and  the  secondary 
period.  The  formal  school  of  books  for  adolescents  took  the 
place  of  the  practical  school  of  observation  and  spontaneous 
suggestive  life.  With  distinct  loss  there  was,  however,  distinct 
gain.  The  intellectual  field  was  opening.  On  the  curriculum 
side  certain  culture  subjects  were  developed  that  eventually,  if 
we  add  Alexandrine  influence  and  the  Roman  genius  for  gram- 
mar, were  to  grow  into  the  "seven  liberal  arts,"  —  the 
"  trivium  "  and  the  "  quadrivium."  In  the  realm  of  method 
we  find  that  the  process  of  education  had  become  more 
developmental. 

Problems  for  the  new  era. —  It  remained  for  coming  cen- 
turies to  regulate  education  in  the  new  field  and  to  make  method 
more  pedagogical  and  healthful.  It  remained  also  to  enlarge 
and  define  aims  and  to  direct  means  definitely  to  their  fulfil- 
ment.15 For  with  this  influx  of  new  subjects  and  new  thoughts 
it  was  natural  that  aims  should  be  imperfect  and  means  inade- 
quate, and  that  views  as  to  ends  and  aims  should  be  unsettled.16 
Greek  education,  however,  had  inherited  and  developed  certain 
principles  and  forms,  and  above  all,  a  certain  spirit,  and  these 
had  a  long  rule,17  reaching  on  into  the  new  era. 


15  Appendix;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  312  ff. 

16  Appendix  ;  Aristotle,  Pol.,  VIII ;  2,  3 ;  Plato,  Rep.,  404. 
"Laurie,  op.  cit.,  311;  Aristotle,  op.  cit.,  VIII;  3;  Plato,  Rep.,  376ft., 

522. 


GREECE  — LATER  HISTORIC  PERIOD  71 


APPENDIX 

1.  The  sophists. —  Speaking  of  the  change  in  the  strict  limits  of 
early  ideas  and  organization  and  the  evolution  of  new  ideals,  De 
Coulanges  (in  The  Ancient  City,  pp.  474  ff.)  says: — "The  sophists 
came  afterwards  (after  Pythagoras  and  Anaxagoras),  and  exercised 
more  influence  than  these  two  great  minds.  They  were  men  eager 
to  combat  old  errors.  In  the  struggle  which  they  entered  against 
whatever  belonged  to  the  past,  they  did  not  spare  the  institutions 
of  the  city  more  than  they  spared  religious  prejudices.  They  boldly 
examined  and  discussed  the  laws  which  still  reigned  in  the  state  and 
in  the  family.  They  went  from  city  to  city,  proclaiming  new  principles, 
teaching,  not  precisely  indifference  to  the  just  and  the  unjust,  but  a 
new  justice,  less  narrow,  less  exclusive  than  the  old,  more  humane, 
more  rational,  and  freed  from  the  formulas  of  preceding  ages.  This 
was  a  hardy  enterprise,  which  stirred  up  a  tempest  of  hatred  and  rancor. 
They  were  accused  of  having  neither  religion,  nor  morals,  nor  pa- 
triotism. The  truth  is  that  they  had  not  a  very  well  settled  doctrine, 
and  thought  they  had  done  enough  when  they  had  attacked  old 
prejudices.  They  moved,  as  Plato  says,  what  before  had  been  immov- 
able. They  placed  the  rule  of  religious  sentiment  and  that  of  politics 
in  the  human  conscience,  and  not  in  the  customs  of  ancestors,  in  im- 
movable tradition.  They  taught  the  Greeks  that  to  govern  a  state  it 
was  not  enough  to  appeal  to  old  customs  and  sacred  laws,  but  that 
men  should  be  persuaded  and  their  wills  should  be  influenced.  For 
the  knowledge  of  ancient  customs  they  substituted  the  art  of  reasoning 
and  speaking, —  dialectics  and  rhetoric.  Their  adversaries  quoted  tra- 
dition to  them,  while  they,  on  the  other  hand,  employed  eloquence  and 
intellect." 

"  When  reflection  had  thus  been  once  awakened  man  no  longer 
wished  to  believe  without  giving  a  reason  for  his  belief,  or  to  be 
governed  without  discussing  his  institutions.  The  habit  of  free  ex- 
amination became  established  in  men's  homes  and  in  the  public  squares." 
Here  was  the  foundation  of  democracy. 

"  Socrates,  while  reproving  the  abuse  which  the  sophists  "  (better, 
certain  sophists)  "made  of  the  right  to  doubt,  was  still  of  their  school. 
Like  them  he  rejected  the  empire  of  tradition  and  believed  that  the 
rules  of  conduct  were  graven  in  the  human  conscience.  He  differed 
from  them  only  in  this ;  he  studied  conscience  religiously,  and  with  a 
firm  desire  to  find  there  an  obligation  to  be  just  and  to  do  good. 
He  ranked  truth  above  custom,  and  justice  above  law.  He  separated 
morals  from  religion ;  before  him  men  never  thought  of  a  duty  except 
as  a  command  of  the  ancient  gods.  He  showed  that  the  principle 
of  duty  is  in  the  human  mind.  In  all  this,  whether  he  wished  it  or 
not,  he  made  war  upon  the  city  worship. —  The  revolution  which  the 
sophists  commenced,  and  which  Socrates  had  taken  up  with  more 
moderation,   was   not   stopped   by  the   death   of  the  old   man.    Greek 


72  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

society  was  enfranchised  more  and  more,  daily,   from  the   empire   of 
old  beliefs  and  old  institutions." 

(These  remarks  are  exceedingly  interesting,  especially  when  taken 
in  connection  with  the  same  author's  study  of  the  primitive  organiza- 
tion and  thought  of  the  Aryans  to  which  his  book  is  devoted.  We 
cannot  understand  such  movements  as  went  on  in  the  later  Greek  period 
unless  they  are  considered  in  the  light  of  a  knowledge  of  primitive 
culture.) 

2.  Some  superficial  sophist  schools. —  Character  of  sophist  schools, 
—  learning  an  easy  accomplishment.  "I  will  go  myself  to  the  thinking 
shop  and  get  taught."  Monroe's  Source  Book,  68.  Conf.  also  Mon- 
roe's Source  Book,  67  ff. 

3.  The  making  of  an  orator. — "  What  gymnastic  is  for  the  body, 
philosophy  is  for  the  mind.  In  the  one  as  in  the  other  the  pupil  learns 
first  the  technical  rudiments,  and  then  how  to  combine  them.  The 
physical  and  the  mental  training  will  alike  improve  natural  powers. 
But  the  master  of  the  palaestra  cannot  make  a  great  athlete,  nor  the 
teacher  of  philosophy  a  great  speaker."  To  make  a  great  speaker  "  three 
things  are  needed  —  capacity,  training,  and  practice;  capacity,  which 
includes  intellect,  voice,  and  nerve,  is  the  chief  requisite ;  practice 
however  can  by  itself  make  a  good  speaker;  training  is  by  far  the  least 
important  of  the  three;  it  may  be  complete  and  yet  may  be  rendered 
useless  by  the  absence  of  a  single  quality,  nerve.  Do  not  suppose  that 
my  claims  are  modest  only  when  I  address  you,  but  larger  when  I 
speak  to  my  pupils.  In  an  essay,  published  when  I  first  began  to 
teach,  the  excessive  pretensions  of  some  teachers  are  expressly  blamed." 
(Other  passages  suggest  that  there  are  two  classes  of  sophists.) 

Varied  results. — "  The  success  of  the  sophists  is  in  fact  equal  to 
that  of  any  other  class  of  teachers.  Some  of  their  pupils  become  power- 
ful debaters ;  others  become  competent  teachers ;  all  become  more 
accomplished  members  of  society,  better  critics,  more  prudent  advisers. 
And  what  proves  the  training  to  be  scientific  is  that  all  bear  the 
stamp  of  a  common  method.  Those  who  despise  such  culture  assume 
that  practice,  which  develops  every  other  faculty,  is  useless  to  the 
intellect ;  that  the  human  mind  can  educate  the  instincts  of  horses 
and  dogs,  but  cannot  train  itself;  that  tame  lions  and  learned  bears  are 
possible,  but  not  instructed  men."  (Isocrates),  Monroe's  Source  Book, 
91,  94,  104,  105. 

4.  Isocrates  and  Quintilian. —  The  notes  as  to  Isocrates  will  in- 
dicate a  connecting  link  between  Greek  education  and  Quintilian.  We 
can  trace  the  decadence  from  Quintilian  down,  in  Rome,  as  we  do 
from  Isocrates  down,  in  Greece. 


VI 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE 

Position  of  Greek  theorists  in  education. —  Greek  theorists 
in  education  have  influenced  educational  thought  in  other  cen- 
turies and  in  other  countries  more  than  in  their  own  times  and 
country.  They  probably  had  little  effect  upon  the  secondary 
schools  of  Greece.  In  fact  they  had  little  time  to  do  so, 
before  the  purely  national  character  and  organization  of  these 
schools  were  broken.  Historically  they  represented  a  reaction 
against  the  extreme  individualism  of  the  times,  which  was  a 
disintegrating  force.  They  tried  to  devise  a  scheme  of  educa- 
tion that  might  counteract  evils  and  conserve  true  Greek 
ideals.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  science  of  education 
they  were  the  first  to  analyze  the  educational  process,  and  they 
gave  us  our  first  books  on  pedagogy,  though  it  would  be  too 
much  to  call  them  systematic  treatises  on  the  subject.  The 
student  of  the  history  and  philosophy  of  education  finds  these 
personalities  and  books  of  unique  interest  and  value.  We  need 
to  study  them  briefly  here,  not  simply  because  they  played  so 
prominent  a  part  in  the  evolution  of  Greek  educational  ideas, 
but  particularly  because  such  a  study  will  give  us,  from  a  new 
view-point,  an  idea  of  the  main  tendencies  at  work  in  Greece. 

Comparison  of  two  ways  of  studying  education. —  Plato's 
analysis  of  the  educational  process  is  philosophic,  and  he  works 
largely  by  philosophic  instinct.  His  mysticism,  added  to,  or 
rather  forming  the  motive  force  of  his  enthusiastic  specula- 
tions, lands  him  in  the  transcendental  by  a  natural  process 
through  which  it  is  always  delightful  to  follow  him.  Aristotle's 
analysis,  on  the  other  hand,  is  scientific,  and  his  logic  gives 
him  a  fairly  consistent  and  practical  scheme  of  education,  as 
judged  by  the  views  of  his  time.  It  is  interesting  also  to  note 
that  in  his  analysis  he  lays  the  foundation  for  the  science  of 
educational  psychology.     We  are  to  ascertain  here  not  all  the 

73 


74  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

details  of  these  writers'  views  as  to  education  but  the  contribu- 
tions they  made  to  the  pedagogy  of  the  secondary  school.  The 
two  appendices  to  this  chapter  will  give  detailed  accounts  of 
their  plans  and  also  present  graphic  summaries  that  may  be 
compared  with  those  in  previous  chapters. 

Common  basis. —  Both  Plato  and  Aristotle  built  their 
theories  on  a  civic  idea  embodied  in  an  ideal  state  which  they 
made  the  foundation  of  their  arguments.  Plato  conceived 
two  states,  a  transcendental  one  in  his  Republic,  and  a  practical 
one  in  his  Laws.  Aristotle,  through  a  double  induction,  also 
conceived  a  practical  state,  but  one  inferior  to  Plato's.1  Greece 
always  based  her  education  on  a  civic  idea  however.  We  are 
concerned  with  this  idea  here  only  because  it  was  now  first 
embodied  in  a  definite  science  of  education,  as  science  was  con- 
ceived in  those  days.  In  each  case  education  was  to  develop 
intellectual  power  and  balance  suited  to  leadership  and  general 
civic  duties. 

The  curriculum  purified. —  Both  writers  took  the  typical 
Greek  curriculum  for  adolescents, —  gymnastic  and  music  (in 
the  wider  sense).  In  the  practical  working  out  of  this  cur- 
riculum, however,  Plato,  in  particular,  tried  to  give  a  larger  idea 
to  studies,  as  has  been  indicated.  Both  writers  tried  to  purify 
studies  of  their  weaker  elements  and  to  bring  them  back  to 
something  of  the  simplicity  of  earlier  days  and  to  the  grace 
and  balance  that  accorded  with  their  own  ideas. 

Contributions  to  educational  thought  and  practice.  De- 
velopment emphasized. —  But  it  is  in  the  direction  of  prin- 
ciples and  method  that  these  writers  are  most  distinctive  and 
suggestive.  In  their  model  educational  states  the  two  writers 
anticipated  the  great  general  principle  that  education  does  not 
implant,  but  merely  develops,2  which  marks  the  real  dividing 
line  between  Occidental  and  Oriental  education. 

1  Plato's  state  in  his  Laws  comes  nearer  reality  than  either  of  the 
others,  but  he  allows  certain  artificialities  and  limitations  that  still 
make  it  a  theoretical  state.  He  recognizes  however  the  impracticability 
and  inimitability  of  his  highest  ideals  and  comes  as  close  as  he  can 
to  real  conditions.  Notwithstanding  his  theory  his  regulations,  includ- 
ing those  for  education,  seem  to  grow  out  of  a  practical  realization, 
from  his  point  of  view,  of  state  conditions.  His  laws  are  suggested 
by  social  needs  and  are  calculated  to  develop  an  all-around  good  man. 

2  Stated  fully  by  Plato ;  implied  by  Aristotle. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  75 

Harmony  and  proportion. —  Again  it  is  noticeable  that 
they  emphasized  harmony  and  proportion  of  life  as  one  of  the 
guiding  principles  of  education.  They  made  a  science  of  that 
which  before  had  been  a  matter  of  instinct.  Harmony  and 
proportion  however  might  be  merely  external.  They  could 
not  of  themselves  produce  the  stability  that  Greek  genius 
needed.  Greek  nature  must  be  steadied  by  a  real  search  for 
truth,  involving  the  highest  exercise  of  self -activity. 

Not  facts,  but  ideas. —  Plato  with  fine  feeling  seems  to 
have  discovered  this  truth.  He  made  the  goal  of  education 
philosophic  insight  that  opened  up  the  inner  meaning  of  har- 
mony. Put  simply  the  principle  was  this,  not  facts,  but  the 
ideas  beneath  the  facts  are  the  objects  of  quest  in  education. 

The  process  of  attainment.  Dialectic. —  The  process  of 
attainment  was  in  accord  with  this  great  end.  It  was  to  be 
genuinely  pedagogical,  leading  from  the  concrete  and  objective 
to  the  ideal  and  philosophic.  This  was  the  dialectic  process 
described  in  the  last  chapter.  This  aim,  this  principle,  and 
this  process  he  brought  forward  and  made  the  distinguishing 
features  of  his  work.  Put  into  practice  they  would  take  the 
student  into  a  new  world  and  give  him  real  insight,  a  distinct 
and  very  significant  gain.  They  would  affect  not  only  method, 
but  the  studies  of  the  curriculum.  They  involved  in  the  best 
way  the  freedom  of  individual  development,  and  so  finally 
brought  into  education  the  idea  that  best  characterized  the  new 
epoch.  At  the  same  time  they  were  a  guaranty  against  the 
extravagance  of  individualism  that  rises  when  it  is  separated 
from  its  principle,  i.  e.,  they  supplied  a  natural  corrective  calcu- 
lated to  produce  poise  and  balance  for  counteracting  that  nat- 
ural and  excessive  mobility  of  Greek  nature  that  led  young 
men  to  take  sudden  flights  in  unbalanced  action  and  made  them 
self-centered,  catching  at  the  advantage  of  the  moment. 

An  intuition  for  adolescent  motif. —  In  suggesting  this 
principle  and  aim  in  the  secondary  period  Plato  showed  that  he 
appreciated  the  status  of  the  adolescent.  The  search  for  the 
great  thought  beneath  forms  and  facts,  the  quest  of  the  ideal, 
inspires  the  adolescent  and  stimulates  his  best  effort.  Inspira- 
tion and  appeals  to  the  imagination  are  wonderful  motive  forces 
in  secondary  school  method.     Plato  thus  made  a  much  needed 


76  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

distinction  between  elementary  and  secondary  method.  Ele- 
mentary education  in  his  scheme  contents  itself  with  simple 
learning  processes.  Secondary  education  gets  at  fundamental 
meanings,  relations,  ideals,  in  the  learning.3  This  is  one  of 
Plato's  most  typical  contributions  to  the  principles  of  educa- 
tion. In  the  formal  times  that  followed  it  was  obscured ;  it  is 
now  coming  into  prominence  again. 

Aristotle  takes  up  the  aim  from  a  different  view-point  and 
brings  in  the  culture  (diagoge)  idea,  thus  introducing  the 
thought  of  a  liberal  education  as  a  means  toward  a  higher  civic 
life.  Apparently  also  he  makes  it  an  end.  But  it  is  fair  to 
assume  that  he  is  thinking  of  educating  men  to  a  high  and  most 
productive  use  of  the  leisure  that  all  freemen  had  in  one  degree 
or  another. 

The  teacher. —  The  teacher  is  the  best  part  of  method. 
It  is  natural  that  thinkers  on  education  should  give  special 
attention  in  this  direction.  Plato  and  Aristotle  give  some  of 
their  best  suggestions  as  to  teachers.  The  integrity  of  their 
states  required  special  solicitude  here.  Plato  in  particular  goes 
into  detail  concerning  the  high  character  and  general  excellence 
of  his  teachers,  who  are  to  be  possessed  of  the  fundamental 
ideas  and  principles  on  which  his  scheme  of  education  is  built. 

Freedom,  not  education  by  the  rod. —  In  pursuing  their 
plan  of  education  both  writers  insist  upon  giving  the  pupil 
not  only  freedom,  but  the  right  stimulus  to  take  hold  of  and 
appreciate  and  appropriate  what  is  needed  in  the  educational 
process.  In  their  view  the  old  notion  of  education  by  the  rod 
is  unworthy  of  free  natures.  Yet  education  was  to  be  com- 
pulsory. Aristotle,  particularly,  is  very  insistent  here.  This 
is,  however,  a  matter  of  school  economy,  not  of  school  method. 
There  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  "  compulsory 
education  "  and  education  by  compulsion. 

"  Special  training  and  general  ability." —  One  detail  as 
to  method,  or  rather  as  to  the  training  value  of  studies,  is  inter- 
esting to  note  here,  in  view  of  the  discussions  provoked  by  the 
theory  of  education  as  adjustment.  In  treating  of  arithmetic 
Plato  is  particular  to  make  it  clear  that  he  believes  in  the  special 
disciplinary  value  of  the  study  and  that  he  is  firmly  convinced 

3  Plato,  Rep.,  537. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  J7 

that  special  training  gives  general  ability.  This  is  probably  the 
first  formal  statement  in  educational  literature  of  a  doctrine  that 
contains  a  partial  truth,  but,  stated  absolutely,  is  inherently  false. 

Their  chief  service  to  method. —  The  most  important  con- 
tribution to  method  that  these  authors  made  was  their  illustra- 
tion of  the  meaning  and  value  of  dialectic,  which  they  compre- 
hended more  fully,  and  consequently  applied  further,  than 
their  predecessors,  whose  initial  development  of  this  method 
has  been  explained  in  the  previous  chapter.  Thought,  experi- 
ment, investigation,  search  for  reality,  the  inspiration  of  large 
ideas  and  relations,  all  of  them  keys  to  adolescent  power  if 
shaped  rightly  so  as  tjo  fit  the  adolescent  not  the  adult  lock,  were 
idealized.  This  meant  development.  This  idea  of  develop- 
ment, as  contrasted  with  imparting  knowledge,  was  the  most 
notable  characteristic  of  their  method  and  put  them  far  beyond 
their  times. 

An  aristocratic  education  with  limitations. —  As  to  the 
application  of  educational  privilege,  both  writers,  true  to 
Greek  ideas,  provide  an  aristocratic  education.  But  we  now 
for  the  first  time  find  a  reasoned  circumscription.  Plato 
develops  the  more  sensible  and  taking  scheme  in  this  particu- 
lar, making  lines  of  demarcation  that  are  far  from  rigid. 
Aristotle  is  coldly  and  dogmatically  exclusive.  Probably  both 
writers,  in  their  attempt  to  systematize  education  and  to  main- 
tain more  regular  civic  principles,  are  more  restrictive  than  was 
the  practice  of  the  Greeks. 

Education  of  both  sexes. —  In  one  way,  however,  Plato 
broke  away  from  typical  Greek  ideas,  for  in  his  state  of  the 
Laws  he  provided  that. girls  and  boys  should  have  substantially 
the  same  education.  It  would  almost  seem  that  he  was  near 
the  line  of  universal  education. 

School  administration. —  We  should  note  finally  that  these 
authors  are  careful  to  provide  definitely  for  educational 
administration.  Plato  does  this  rather  mystically  in  his 
Republic.  But  the  same  author  in  his  Laws,  and  Aristotle  in 
his  Politics  do  it  with  more  definiteness,  as  a  part  of  state 
machinery.  With  "  Directors  of  Education "  in  the  one 
scheme,  and  a  general  "  Minister  of  Education  "  and  a  "  Min- 
ister "  for  each  branch  of  education,  in  the  other  scheme,  school 


78  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

interests,  instead  of  being  left  to  private  judgment,  as  had  been 
the  way  generally  in  Greece,  are  to  be  fully  regulated  by  the 
state,  and  to  have  something  of  the  impressiveness  and  watch- 
ful care  that  primitive  education  had  shown. 

The  contributions  of  these  noted  educators  to  secondary 
education  have  to  do  with  its  spirit  rather  than  with  its  form. 
Altogether  it  is  as  a  beginning  of  what  was  to  be,  rather  than 
as  an  indication  of  what  was,  that  we  consider  their  work  here. 

Summary. —  It  is  perhaps  not  unfair  to  say  that  Greek 
education,  as  we  saw  it  in  Chapters  IV  and  V,  was  rather 
spontaneous  than  studied.  It  was  an  inspiration,  an  intuition. 
The  Greeks  in  practice  never  organized  or  systematized  any- 
thing in  education.  From  all  that  has  been  said,  and  from 
other  details  given  elsewhere,4  we  find  that  these  theorists 
supplied  what  was  generally  neglected.  But  times  and  condi- 
tions did  not  provide  an  opportunity  to  make  their  gains  gen- 
eral, and  the  theorists  were  too  much  educational  recluses  to 
impress  themselves  in  practical  application  on  any  wide  scale. 
In  fact  their  plans  as  a  whole  were  of  such  a  nature  that  it  was 
impracticable  to  put  them  to  the  test  then  or  later.  We  are 
thus  left  for  concrete  results  about  where  we  were  at  the  end 
of  Chapter  V.  Succeeding  educators  however  were  inspired 
by  their  work  and  applied  many  of  their  ideas  in  the  new  sys- 
tems of  later  centuries. 

APPENDIX  I 

PLATO'S  EDUCATIONAL  PLANS,  AS  GIVEN  IN  HIS 
REPUBLIC  AND  LAWS 

I.  Plato's  scheme  of  education  as  given  in  his  Republic,  Books 
ii-vii. 

Platonic  socialism. —  The  outlines  of  Plato's  ideal  state  are  well 
known  and  need  not  be  given  in  detail  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  it 
is  highly  socialistic,  even  to  the  extent  of  obliterating  the  family,  and 
that  he  organizes  it  in  such  a  way  that  classes  are  distributed  according 
to  their  characteristics,  each  following  plans  of  thought  and  action 
that  he  believes  accord  with  the  intrinsic  fitness  of  the  case ; 5  he 
therefore  rests  secure  in  the  quiet  acquiescence  of  each  class  in  its 
destiny,  and  there   is  no   suspicion   of  rebellion. 

4  See  Appendix. 

5  Class  lines  however  are  not  absolute.    Plato,  Rep.,  413-14. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  79 

General  principles  of  Plato's  ideal  state. —  Those  who  have  the 
highest  ideals  and  show  themselves  capable  of  the  highest  attainments, 
being  discovered  by  a  natural  process  of  elimination,  are  to  be  the 
rulers.  After  a  kind  of  probationary  period  of  ruling  they  attain  the 
state  of  pure  contemplation,  where  thoughts  are  filled  with  pure  ideals. 
They  are  typical  men  thinking  in  types,  the  great  archetypes.  Philos- 
ophers therefore  are  to  rule ;  hence  the  state  may  be  called  a  philosophic 
state.  The  next  class,  really  an  offshoot  of  the  same  class,  is  that 
designated  as  the  "  guardians "  of  the  state,  the  "  auxiliaries  and 
allies  of  the  principles  of  the  rulers."  Both  classes,  however,  are 
guardians,  though  one  of  them  in  a  higher  and  broader  sense  than 
the  other.6  Now  it  is  this  general  class  or  double  class  of  citizens  for 
which  alone  Plato  seems  to  provide  education,  and  each  one  is  to 
continue  the  course  according  to  his  talent  or  affinities,  some  dropping 
out  at  one  point,  some  at  another,  each  to  serve  the  state  according 
to  his  capacity.  The  education  of  other  classes  comes  in  a  natural  way, 
through  apprenticeship  and  otherwise.  We  are  concerned  here  then 
only  with  some  details  as  to  the  education  of  this  highest  class, —  its 
aims  and  means. 

Distinctive  features  of  his  course  of  education. —  Though  Plato 
presupposes  a  Utopian  state  based  on  socialistic  principles,  he  cannot 
break  away  from  the  old  Greek  course  of  training.  But  he  idealizes  it, 
—  making  it  lead  from  the  concrete  and  objective  to  the  ideal  and 
philosophic.  Crude  forms  of  things,  with  which  one  deals  in  the 
schools,  with  him  are  to  lead  to  typal  forms  which  one  sees  only  in 
the  world  of  thought  or  ideas,  as  he  calls  it.  His  ideal  is  the  conser- 
vation of  the  state  through  philosophic  education  inducting  students 
into  real  ideas,  and  his  state  is  to  be  served  in  lower  capacities,  re- 
quiring more  or  less  education,  by  those  who  stop  by  the  way  in  the 
long  and   arduous    course   toward    the   philosophic   goal. 

Great  principle.  Development. —  His  great  principle  is  dialectic.7 
Through  this  he  attains  his  final  purpose  of  living  in  pure  ideas  or, 
as  we  should  say,  ideals.  In  a  way  dialectic,  or  dialectic  life,  is  his 
ideal.  This  dialectic,  which  is  his  talisman,  is  a  straightforward  analyz- 
ing of  anything  and  everything  that  meets  the  student,  until  the  real 
principle  or  idea  of  things  is  reached.  The  four  stages  on  the  way 
to  this  supreme  process  and  power,8  which  represent  a  kind  of  psycho- 
logical analysis  of  method,  are,  knowledge  of  shadows,  belief,  under- 
standing, and  science.  His  education  is  to  lead  pupils  to  this  climax 
of  knowledge.  It  is  not  however  to  put  certain  qualities  or  certain 
knowledge  into  souls,  but  to  develop  latent  potentialities ;  for,  he  says, 
"  certain  professors  of  education  must  be  mistaken  in  saying  that  they 
can   put   knowledge   into   the   soul    which   was   not  there   before,   like 

6  Do.,  376,  473,  487,  535-36;  citations  2,  3,  4  (last  pages  of  Appendix). 

7  Citations  1,  4;  Rep.,  539. 

8  Do.,  533-34- 


80  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

giving  eyes  to  the  blind, —  whereas  our  argument  shows  that  the  power 
is  already  in  the  soul." 9 

Aim. —  From  what  has  been  said  it  is  plain  that  according  to  Plato 
the  aim  of  education,  briefly  stated,  is  to  train  for  civic  purposes  a 
select  body  of  children  through  a  curriculum  that  each  is  to  continue  ac- 
cording to  his  talent,  the  highest  degree  of  this  education,  attained  by  a 
few  choice  souls,  being  that  which  gives  philosophic  insight  and  the 
ruling  ability  that  this  produces. 

Plato's  ideal  is  thus  a  civic  one.  Indeed  he  makes  great  effort 
to  throw  himself  into  the  breach  made  by  the  recession  of  civic  ideals 
before  personal  ends  and  aims. 

The  curriculum. —  The  means  he  suggests  for  producing  his  ideal 
are  not  new.  They  are,  in  the  first  place,  the  typical  Greek  agencies, 
music  and  gymnastic.10  Music  as  usual  includes  literature,  but  very 
limited  in  amount  and  carefully  defined  in  quality.11  Literature  is  to 
be  simple  and  to  be  freed  from  all  matter  that  would  degrade  the  soul 
or  jeopardize  ideals.  Therefore  Homer  must  retire  from  his  position 
of  presiding  genius  of  the  schools,  and  much  other  material  must 
follow  him.  Strong  melodies,  Dorian  and  Phrygian  harmonies,  meet  his 
approval,  and  the  lyre,  the  harp,  and  the  pipe  are  the  instruments  of 
his  choice.  In  literature  that  is  exclusively  or  chiefly  poetical,  simple 
narrative  or  lofty  "  imitation  "  is  the  rule. 

In  addition  to  these  simple  educational  forces  he  finds  that  arithme- 
tic, geometry,  and  astronomy  are  required  for  his  purpose,12 — geometry 
of  a  simple  sort,  for  he  finds  solid  geometry  in  a  very  undeveloped 
state.  Finally  in  higher  education,  which  is  entered  only  by  adults  of 
thirty  years,  dialectic  13  becomes  the  sum  and  substance  of  the  curricu- 
lum. 

Gradation. —  This  is  a  bare  summary  of  the  curriculum.  As  these 
studies  are  applied  to  different  ages  however,  some  very  interesting 
distinctions,  as  well  as  some  very  suggestive  elements  of  method,  come 
to  view.  i.  "  Calculation,  geometry,  and  all  other  elements  of  instruc- 
tion which  are  a  preparation  for  dialectic,  should  be  presented  to  the 
mind  in  childhood  "  and  in  the  form  of  amusement.  There  is  to  be 
no  compulsion,  for  "a  freeman  ought  to  be  a  freeman  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge."  14  This  "  childhood "  would  seem  to  extend 
to  about  the  age  of  sixteen  or  seventeen,  and  thus  to  include  much  of 
the  period  of  secondary  training.  2.  Plato  provides  then  for  three  years 
of  close  application  to  study,  though  he  is  rather  vague  here,  as  else- 
where, in  the  matter  of  details.  In  all  this  early  period  the  sciences 
are  taken  up  without  order.  3.  But  in  late  adolescence,  when  the  youth 
has  rounded  out  a  score  of  years,  these  subjects  are  "brought  to- 
gether," so  that  the  youth  are  "  able  to  see  the  correlation  of  them  to 

9  Do.,  518.  10  Citations  2,  6-8;  Rep.,  411. 

11  Citations  7,  9;  Rep.,  386  ff.,  411. 

12  Citations  10-12;  Rep.,  510,  524-25,  526-28. 

13  The  fundamental  idea  in  dialectic  was  to  be  applied  also  to  adoles- 
cent studies.  14  Rep.,  536-7 ;  Citations,  16. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  81 

one  another  and  to  true  being."15  Herein  lies  the  most  important 
change  which  Plato  introduced  into  the  secondary  curriculum.  Stu- 
dents are  to  go  beyond  form,  beyond  the  ordinary  processes,  and  to 
find  the  great  thought  beneath, —  that  which  binds  them  to  universal 
thought,  to  the  world  of  ideas.16  This  was  natural  inspiration-ground 
for  youth.  The  ideal  appeals  to  the  adolescent.  In  the  two  periods 
therefore  the  sciences  are  taken  up  in  two  different  ways,— ways  so 
different  as  to  make  the  subjects  themselves  seem  different.  Two  dif- 
ferent conceptions  thus  guide  the  curriculum. 

But  there  is  also  gradation  in  method.  Beginning  with  play,17  which 
Plato,  following  primal  educational  instincts,  emphasizes  in  his  scheme, 
method  grows  gradually  to  the  dialectic  stage. 

Secondary  education  indefinite  in  Republic. —  Plato's  educational 
scheme  in  his  Republic  is  very  general,  and  can  satisfy  no  one  who 
is  looking  for  an  organized  scheme  of  education  in  which  details  as 
to  age  and  study  are  carefully  explained.  He  refers  to  definite  age 
in  the  secondary  period  but  once,  and  this  has  already  been  noted. 
We  may,  however,  make  a  simple  division  that  he  suggests,  earlier  edu- 
cation, which  is  to  be  "  a  sort  of  amusement,"  thus  making  it  easier 
to  discover  the  child's  "  natural  bent," 18  and  later  education,  when 
subjects  are  taken  up  more  seriously  and  shown  in  their  relations. 
This  is  significant  when  we  consider  the  psychologies  of  the  two 
periods.  But  as  a  rule  we  must  look  in  the  Republic  only  for  the 
larger  ideas  of  education  and  for  a  minute  discussion  of  the  subject  of 
music.  We  must  look  elsewhere  for  light  as  to  grading  and  organiza- 
tion.   This  is  found  in  the  Laws. 

Davidson,  in  his  Aristotle,  leads  us  to  think  that  Plato  maps  out  his 
course  carefully  as  to  ages  and  subjects  in  the  Republic.  He  has  evi- 
dently combined  his  suggestions  in  the  Republic  and  the  Laws,  which 
is  hardly  fair.  He  even  makes  Plato  more  precise  than  he  is.  What- 
ever else  the  Greek  philosopher  does,  he  does  not  decide  finally  on  any 
hard  and  fast  lines  for  our  secondary  period. 

2.    PLATO'S  SCHEME  OF  EDUCATION  AS  GIVEN  IN  BOOK 
VII  OF  HIS  LAWS,  WITH  BRIEF  REFERENCE 
TO  OTHER  BOOKS 

Plato's  state  is  here  radically  different  from  that  of  the  Republic,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following  outline :  — 

Outline  of  State  in  "  The  Laws ."^-19  No  communal  principles  except 

"  common  tables."     Private  families  and  property. 
Men  and  women  on  a  par.     Training  of  the  two  sexes  similar. 

15  Rep.,  537-  .     .  ,  „      . 

16  For  other  pedagogical  principles  see  Citations  12;  Rep.,  526-7. 
Plato  seems  to  think  that  special  training  can  give  general  ability. 

17  Citations  16,  17.  18  Citations  11. 

19  See  Plato,  Laws,  and  Jowett's  Introduction  to  his  translation  of 
Plato's  works,  Vol.  4,  pp.  8,  9,  17,  142  ff. 


82  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

No  gold  or  silver  money;  simply  tokens.  Care  to  promote  simplicity 
and  an  approximation  to  equality.  The  money  question  perhaps 
influenced  by  this. 

Number  of  families  fixed  at  5050,  the  number  evidently  being  selected 
for  its   factoring  power. 

Land  allotted  to  citizens,  each  receiving  a  double  lot,  one  near  and  one 
remote;  two  residences.  "Let  the  several  possessors  feel  that  their 
particular  lots  belong  to  the  whole  city."  Lots  to  be  equalized  in 
value ;  each  family  has  at  least  one  lot,  and  no  family  more  than 
four ;  hence  bounds  of  wealth  are  fixed  within  narrow  limits.  Strict 
penalties  for  overstepping.     Gods  have  twelve  lots,  one  each. 

On  basis  of  this  limited  difference  in  wealth  four  classes  are  formed. 
"  Offices,  contributions,  and  distributions  are  proportioned  to  the 
value  of  each  person's  wealth,  and  not  solely  to  the  virtue  of  his 
ancestors  or  himself,  nor  yet  to  the  strength  and  beauty  of  his 
person,  but  to  the  measure  of  his  wealth  or  poverty ;  and  so  by  a 
law  of  inequality,  which  will  be  in  proportion  to  his  wealth,  he 
will  receive  honors  and  offices  as  equally  as  possible,  and  there 
will  be  no  quarrels  or  disputes." 

Electors. —  Legislators. —  Magistrates,  elected  by  vote  or  lot. —  Courts 
(graded)  ;  judges  appointed  by  magistrates. —  General  and  local  as- 
semblies of  people  also  serve  judicially,  the  former  as  the  highest 
Court  of  Appeals.  Council  of  360,  to  have  general  supervision  of 
state. 

A  "Nocturnal  Council"  composed  of  old  men  and  young  men  who 
attain  the  highest  education.  The  old  men  form  the  deliberative 
body.  "  The  younger  guardians  .  .  .  are  chosen  for  their  natural 
gifts  and  placed  in  the  head  of  the  state,  having  their  souls  all 
full  of  eyes,  with  which  they  look  around  the  whole  city.  They 
keep  watch,  and  hand  over  their  perceptions  to  the  memory,  and 
inform  the  elders  of  all  that  happens  in  the  city ;  and  those  whom 
we  compared  to  the  mind,  because  they  have  many  wise  thoughts, 
that  is  to  say  the  old  men,  take  counsel,  and,  making  use  of  the 
younger  men  as  their  ministers  and  advising  with  them,  in  this 
way  both  together  preserve  the  whole  state."  .  .  . 

Ministers  of  Music  and  Gymnastic,  and  a  Minister  of  Education  are 
chosen. 

The  constitution  is  to  be  stable.     No  change.     Laws  irreversible. 

All  freemen  to  be  educated. 

Position  of  education  in  the  scheme. —  In  developing  this  state 
Plato  naturally  makes  education  a  part  of  statecraft,  as  in  the  Re- 
public, but  his  scheme  of  education  is  different  from  the  one  just 
noticed,  and  it  is  more  clearly  outlined.  He  makes  it,  even  to  details, 
the  subject  of  state  law.  It  has  reference  also  to  the  practical  (as 
far  as  Plato  can  bring  himself  to  the  practical),  rather  than  to  the 
transcendental  ideal  exemplified  in  the  Republic.  For  this  reason  one 
ought  not  to  confound  the  two  schemes  or  amalgamate  them.  Glean- 
ings from  the  Laws  will  give  us  the  outlines  of  his  secondary  education, 
as  he  conceived  it  at  a  later  date  than  that  of  his  earlier  treatise,  and 
will  enable  us  to  make  some  interesting  comparisons. 

Aims. — "  The  sum  of  education,"  he  says,  "  is  right  training  in  the 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  83 

nursery.  The  soul  of  the  child  in  his  play  should  be  trained  to  that 
sort  of  excellence  in  which,  when  he  grows  up  to  manhood,  he  will 
have  to  be  perfected."  And  he  defines  his  idea  of  education  in  such 
words  as  these:  "For  we  are  not  speaking  of  education  in  this  sense 
of  the  word  (education  for  a  trade),  but  of  that  other  education  in 
virtue,  from  youth  upwards,  which  makes  a  man  eagerly  pursue  the 
ideal  perfection  of  citizenship  and  teaches  him  how  rightly  to  rule 
and  how  to  obey.  This  is  the  only  training  which,  upon  our  view, 
would  be  characterized  as  education.  That  other  sort  of  training  which 
aims  at  the  acquisition  of  wealth  or  bodily  strength  or  mere  cleverness 
apart  from  intelligence  and  justice  is  mean  and  illiberal  and  is  not 
worthy  to  be  called  education  at  all."  Another  remark  brings  out 
the  typical  Greek  dualism,  which  he  now  proceeds  to  apply :  — "  Am 
I  not  right  in  maintaining  that  a  good  education  is  that  which  tends 
most  to  the  improvement  of  mind  and  body?"20 

Periods  of  education. —  The  first  period  of  education  for  which  he 
prescribes  is  that  embraced  in  the  first  three  years  of  life.  For  this 
period  he  emphasizes  exercise  and  a  careful  guarding  from  fear  and 
sorrow.  "  If  during  these  three  years  every  possible  care  were  taken 
that  our  nursling  should  have  as  little  of  sorrow  and  fear,  and,  in 
general,  of  pain,  as  was  possible,  might  we  not  expect  at  this  age  to 
make  his  soul  more  gentle  and  cheerful?"21 

From  three  to  six  is  the  period  for  sport.22  "  Children  at  that 
age  have  certain  natural  modes  of  amusement  which  they  find  out  for 
themselves  when  they  meet."  23  This  is  also  the  time  "  to  get  rid  of 
self-will  in  him,  punishing  him,  not  so  as  to  disgrace  him."  At  six 
comes  the  separation  of  the  sexes.23  "  Now  they  must  begin  to  learn, 
the  boys  going  to  teachers  of  horsemanship  and  the  use  of  the  bow,  the 
javelin,  and  the  sling;  and,  if  they  do  not  object,  let  the  women  go 
too  to  learn,  if  not  to  practice ,  above  all  they  ought  to  know  the  use 
of  arms,  for  these  are  matters  which  are  almost  entirely  misunderstood 
at  present."  23  In  this  connection  he  advocates  ambidexterity.  All  this 
care  is  to  be  devoted  to  physical  exercise  during  these  early  years, 
"  that  all  may  be  sound,  hand  and  foot,  and  may  not  spoil  the  gift 
of  nature  by  bad  habits,  in  so  far  as  this  can  be  avoided."  2a 

The  curriculum. —  He  now  reminds  us  again  that  education  has  two 
branches,  one  of  gymnastic,  which  is  concerned  with  the  body,24  and 
the  other  of  music,  which  is  designed  for  the  improvement  of  the  soul. 
He  includes  both  dancing  and  wrestling  in  the  former  and  advises 
"  suitable  imitations  of  war  in  our  dances." 

Again,  he  says :    "  It  will  be  right  also  for  boys,  until  such  time  as  they 

20  Laws,  643-44,  788. 

21  Do.,  789-92. 

22  Citations  13,  14 ;  Laws,  793-94.  One's  future  work  is  to  be  recog- 
nized in  plays ;  so  these  years  are  formative. 

23  Do.,  794-97- 

2*  Do.,  795  f . ;  Citations  15. 


84  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

go  to  war,  to  make  processions  and  supplications  to  the  gods,  in  goodly 
array,  armed  and  on  horseback,  faster  and  slower  in  their  dances  and 
marches,  offering  up  prayers  to  the  gods,  and  also  engaging  in  con- 
tests and  preludes  of  contests,  if  at  all,  with  those  objects.  For  these 
sorts  of  exercise  and  no  others,  are  useful  both  in  peace  and  war 
and  are  beneficial  both  to  states  and  to  private  houses.  But  other 
labors  and  sports  and  excessive  training  of  the  body  are  unworthy  of 
freemen."  25 

Music. —  As  to  plays,  music,  and  song,  he  gives  very  definite  limita- 
tions. He  decides  for  that  which  is  substantial,  established,  and  regu- 
lar, the  good  old  fashions  as  opposed  to  constant  change,  and  believes 
such  things  have  close  relations  with  the  stability  of  states.26 

Physical  training. — "  Next  follow  the  buildings  for  gymnasia  and 
schools  open  to  all ;  these  are  to  be  in  three  places.  In  the  midst  of  the 
city,  and  outside  the  city,  and  in  the  surrounding  country  there  shall 
be  schools  for  horse  exercise,  and  open  spaces  also  in  three  places  ar- 
ranged with  a  view  to  archery  and  throwing  of  missiles,  at  which 
young  men  may  learn  and  practice.  ...  In  these  schools  let  there  be 
dwellings  for  teachers,  who  shall  be  brought  from  foreign  parts  by 
pay,  and  let  them  teach  the  frequenters  of  the  school  the  art  of  war  and 
the  art  of  music."  27 

Letters. —  Coming  to  the  "  letters  "  side  of  musical  training  he  tells 
us  that  "a  fair  time  for  a  boy  of  ten  years  old  to  spend  in  letters  is 
three  years." 

Secondary  education  begins. — "At  thirteen  years  he  should  begin 
to  handle  the  lyre  and  he  may  continue  at  this  another  three  years, 
neither  more  nor  less,  and  whether  his  father  or  himself  like  or  dis- 
like the  study,  he  is  not  to  be  allowed  to  spend  more  or  less  time  in 
learning  music  than  the  law  allows."  As  to  the  extent  of  training  in 
reading  and  writing  he  does  not  leave  us  in  doubt.  "  They  ought  to 
be  occupied  with  their  letters  until  they  are  able  to  read  and  write ; 
but  the  acquisition  of  perfect  beauty  or  quickness  in  writing,  if  nature 
has  not  stimulated  them  to  acquire  these  accomplishments  in  the  given 
number  of  years,  they  should  be  let  alone." 

t 
Selection  of  material. —  On  the  literary  side  he  follows  consistently 

his   idea  of  conservatism,   inclining  to  a  careful   sifting  according  to 

principles  he  has  laid  down.    This  is  in  striking  contrast  with  some 

of  the  customs  of  the  day  that  he  vividly  depicts  in  these  words :  — 

"  We  have  a  great  many  poets   writing  in   hexameter,   trimeter,   and 

all  sorts  of  measures,  some  who  are  serious,  others  who  aim  only  at 

raising  a  laugh,  in  which  the  aforesaid  myriads  declare  that  the  youth 

25  Laws,  795-6. 

26  Citations  14 ;  Laws,  797  ff. 

27  Citations  15 ;  Laws,  804-5.  Both  boys  and  girls  are  to  be  taught, 
and  taught  alike. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  85 

who  are  rightly  educated  should  be  brought  up  and  saturated ;  they 
should  be  constantly  hearing  them  read  at  recitations,  and  learning 
them,  getting  off  whole  parts  by  heart,  while  others  select  choice 
passages  and  long  speeches,  and  make  compendiums  of  them,  saying 
that  these  shall  be  committed  to  memory,  and  that  in  this  way  a  man 
is  to  be  made  good  and  wise  by  varied  experience  and  learning."  28 

Arithmetic  and  geometry. —  Finally  the  growing  citizen  must  study 
"calculation  in  arithmetic,"29  the  measurement  of  length,  surface  and 
depth  (geometry),  and  that  which  "has  to  do  with  the  revolution  of 
the  stars  in  relation  to  one  another."  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  make 
a  technical  and  extended  study  of  these  things,  for  he  says,  "  not 
every  one  has  need  to  toil  through  all  these  things  in  a  strictly  scientific 
manner,  but  only  a  few,  and  who  they  are  to  be  we  will  hereafter 
indicate."  But  "  all  freemen  should,  I  conceive,  learn  as  much  of  these 
various  disciplines  as  every  child  in  Egypt  is  taught  when  he  learns 
his  alphabet,"  by  way  of  "pleasure  and  amusement," — that  is,  each 
one  is  to  gain  a  simple  and  elementary  knowledge  of  these  arts.30 

Compulsory  education. —  This  education  is  to  be  compulsory,  at 
least  part  of  it,  and  we  may  assume  that  we  are  to  apply  to  the  whole 
course  of  ordinary  education  the  following  words  used  in  speaking  of 
the  "  gymnasia  and  schools  open  to  all "  that  were  spoken  of  above :  — 

"  Let  them  teach  the  frequenters  of  the  school  the  art  of  war  and  the 
art  of  music ;  and  they  shall  come  not  only  if  their  parents  please, 
but  if  they  do  not  please;  and  if  their  education  is  neglected,  there 
shall  be  a  compulsory  education  of  all  and  sundry,  as  the  saying  is, 
as  far  as  this  is  possible,  and  the  pupils  shall  be  regarded  as  belonging 
to  the  state  rather  than  their  parents." 

Education  for  both  sexes. —  Both  sexes  are  included  in  this  plan, 
for  he  continues,  "  my  law  would  apply  to  females  as  well  as  males,  and 
they  shall  both  go  through  the  same  exercises.  I  have  no  sort  of  fear 
of  saying  that  gymnastic  and  horsemanship  are  as  suitable  to  women 
as  men."  And  again  a  little  farther  on  he  says,  "  nor  will  any  one  deny 
that  women  ought  to  share  as  far  as  possible  in  education  and  in  other 
ways  with  men."  31 

Education  a  serious  and  strenuous  matter. —  Studentship  is  to  be  a 
strenuous  matter :  — "  When  the  day  breaks  the  time  has  arrived  for 

28  Do.,  810-11. 

29  Citations  10,  12;  Laws,  747,  817-18.  Arithmetic  is  a  supreme  in- 
strument of  education. 

30  Do.,  817  ff.  Plato  hints  at  higher  studies,  but  gives  no  details  or 
information  about  them,  unless  we  are  to  interpret  some  of  his  words 
as  referring  to  a  little  advanced  geometry  and  astronomy.  See 
Laws,  818  ff.,  068.  The  latter  reference  implies  that  members  of  the 
"  Nocturnal  Council "  are  to  have  a  special  and  higher  education, 
apparently  dialectic. 

31  Do.,  795,  804-5. 


86  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

youth  to  go  to  the  schoolmasters."  "There  ought  to  be  no  by-work 
which  interferes  with  the  due  exercise  and  nourishment  of  the  body, 
or  the  attainments  and  habits  of  the  soul.  Night  and  day  are  not 
long  enough  for  the  accomplishment  of  their  perfection  and  consum- 
mation ;  and  to  this  end  all  freemen  ought  to  arrange  the  time  of  their 
employment  during  the  whole  course  of  the  twenty-four  hours,  from 
morning  to  evening  and  from  evening  to  morning  of  the  next  sunrise. 
.  .  .  Much  sleep  is  not  required  by  nature  either  for  our  souls  or  bodies 
or  for  the  actions  in  which  they  are  concerned ;  .  .  .  but  he  of  us  who 
has  the  greatest  regard  for  life  and  reason  keeps  awake  as  long  as 
he  can,  reserving  only  so  much  time  for  sleep  as  is  expedient  for 
health,  and  much  sleep  is  not  required  if  the  habit  of  not  sleeping  be 
formed."  32 

Administration. —  It  remains  to  say  a  word  as  to  the  state  ma- 
chinery for  superintending  educational  matters.  The  Nocturnal  Coun- 
cil (described  in  the  outline  of  the  state  given  on  page  82),  he  tells  us 
in  Book  XII,  is  "  associated  with  us  in  our  whole  scheme  of  educa- 
tion." Again,  "  it  will  be  proper,"  he  says,  "  to  appoint  ministers  of 
music  and  gymnastic,  two  of  each  kind,  one  whose  business  will  be 
education,  and  the  other  for  the  superintendence  of  contests.  In  speak- 
ing of  education  the  law  means  to  speak  of  those  who  have  the  care 
of  order  and  instruction  in  gymnasia  and  schools  and  of  the  going  to 
school  and  lodging  of  boys  and  girls ;  and  in  speaking  of  contests,  the 
law  refers  to  the  judges  of  gymnastic  and  music."  Then  there  is  to 
be  a  "minister  of  the  education  of  youth,  male  and  female;  he  too  will 
rule  according  to  law,  being  a  single  magistrate  of  fifty  years  old  at 
least;  the  father  of  children  lawfully  begotten,33  of  both  sexes,  or  of 
one  at  any  rate.  He  who  is  elected  and  he  who  is  the  elector  should 
consider  that  of  all  great  offices  of  state  this  is  the  greatest ;  for  the 
first  shoot  of  any  plant  rightly  tending  to  the  perfection  of  its  own 
nature  has  the  greatest  effect  on  its  maturity,  and  this  is  true  also  of 
men.  Man,  we  say,  is  a  tame  and  civilized  animal ;  nevertheless  he 
requires  proper  instruction  and  a  fortunate  nature,  and  then  of  all 
animals  he  becomes  the  most  divine  and  most  civilized ;  but  if  he  be 
insufficiently  or  ill-educated,  he  is  the  savagest  of  earthly  creatures. 
Wherefore  the  legislator  ought  not  to  allow  the  education  of  children 
to  become  a  secondary  or  accidental  matter."  34 

These  are  good  words  with  which  to  close  the  account  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  Laws.  Plato  is  in  many  ways  more  interesting  here  than 
in  the  Republic.  He  comes  nearer  this  world,  nearer  the  practical, 
and  he  gives  more  detail.  But  there  is  a  certain  ideal  nature,  and 
a  certain  inspiration  in  the  Republic  which  also  attract  us. 

A  brief  comparative  summary  must  close  this  section :  — 

32  Do.,  807-8. 

33  To-day  we  put  a  premium  upon  the  childless.  Plato  showed  the 
greater  wisdom. 

34  Do.  764-66. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE 


87 


REPUBLIC 

Aim  :  —  To  train  conservators  of 
the  state.  Mind  chiefly  on 
"  supersensuous  man."  Philo- 
sophical insight. 

Curriculum    (general)  :  — 
Gymnastic    and    music    (words, 
harmonies,   literature). 


Secondary : — 

"  Letters,"  music. 

Arithmetic,  geometry,  astron- 
omy:—  1,  elementary  work, 
uncorrelated ;  2,  at  20,  cor- 
related work;  ideal  element 
prominent. 


Higher   education, —  dialectics. 
(For  those  of  largest  capacity.) 

Method    (general  and   special  :  — 

Teachers   of   high   quality. 

Early  education  an  amusement. 
No  compulsion.  The  child  a 
"  freeman  in  acquisition.  In 
regular  education  steady  de- 
votion is  required.  Sleep  and 
exercise  unpropitious  to  learn- 
ing. 

Education  a  development. 
Leads  finally  to  ideas  beneath 
forms,  and  produces  har- 
mony. Studies  not  an  ag- 
glomeration of  facts,  but  or- 
ganized  ideas. 

Special  training  may  give  gen- 
eral ability. 

Education  for  "  Guardians  "  only, 
men  only. 


LAWS 

Aim :  —  To  train  a  good  man, 
perfectly  ruling  and  ruled, 
liberally  educated,  not  educated 
for  a  trade. 

Curriculum    (general)  :  — 

Gymnastic    and    music  :  — 
I  to  3, —  exercise  ;  special  ex- 
citement,       fear,       sorrow 
avoided. 
3     to     6, —  discipline,     sport, 
games   (carefully  regulated, 
old). 
6.  Separation         of         sexes. 
Learning  begins. 

Secondary  (partly  elementary)  :  — 

Gymnastic. 

Reading,    writing,    literature. 

Music. 

(Boy  of  10  takes  3  yrs.  for  let- 
ters, then  3  yrs.  for  lyre.) 

Arithmetic,  geometry,  astron- 
omy.    No  age  assigned. 

In  all  this  curriculum,  elemen- 
tary knowledge,  not  scholar- 
ship. 

Higher  education. —  dialectics. 
(For  select  number.) 

Method :  — 

Early  education  an  amusement. 
No  compulsion  in  early  years, 
but  strict  compulsion  later. 
Incessant  and  vigorous  work 
carefully  supervised. 

Practical  ideas  of  things. 

Education  measured  by  time 
rather  than  amount.  Strict 
limitation  of  years  in  educa- 
tion. 

Education  for  all  freemen,  both 
men  and  women. 


88  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

State  organization :  —  State  organization  :  — 

"  Guardians  "  and  Dialecticians.  Nocturnal  Council. 

Philosophers  rulers.  Legislators. 

Minister  of  education. 
Minister  of  music. 
Minister  of  gymnastic. 
Education  thus  to  be  thoroughly 
organized,  not  left  to  acci- 
dent or  private  management 
at  all. 

CITATIONS 

1.  Nature  of  education. — "And  surely  you  would  not  have  the 
children  of  your  ideal  state,  whom  you  are  nurturing  and  educating,  if 
the  ideal  ever  becomes  a  reality,  you  would  not  allow  the  future 
rulers  to  be  like  posts,  having  no  reason  in  them,  and  yet  to  be  set 
in  authority  over  the  highest  matters?  Certainly  not.  Then  you  will 
enact  that  they  shall  have  such  an  education  as  will  enable  them  to 
attain  the  highest  skill  in  asking  and  answering  questions?  Yes,  he 
said,  I  will,  with  your  help.  Dialectic  then,  as  you  will  agree,  is  the 
coping-stone  of  the  sciences  and  is  placed  over  them ;  no  other  can 
be  placed  higher;  the  nature  of  knowledge  can  go  no  further.  I 
agree,  he  said." —  Rep.,  534. 

2.  Qualities  of  leaders. — "  Then  he  who  is  to  be  a  really  good  and 
noble  guardian  of  the  state  will  require  to  unite  in  himself  philosophy 
and  spirit  and  swiftness  and  strength?  Undoubtedly.  Then  we  have 
found  the  desired  natures ;  and  now  that  we  have  found  them,  how 
are  they  to  be  reared  and  educated?  .  .  .  Can  we  find  a  better  than 
the  old-fashioned  sort?  And  this  has  two  divisions,  gymnastic  for 
the  body,  and  music   for  the  soul." —  Plato,   Rep.,  376.35 

3.  General  qualities  needed  in  those  who  are  to  be  most  highly 
educated. —  Qualities  necessary  for  those  who  receive  the  highest  edu- 
cation :  — "  Preference  given  to  the  surest  and  the  bravest,  and,  if 
possible,  to  the  fairest ;  and,  having  noble  and  manly  tempers,  they 
should  also  have  the  natural  gifts  which  accord  with  their  education  " 
(keenness  and  ready  powers  of  acquisition,  a  good  memory,  power  of 
enduring  fatigue,  solidity,  love  of  labor  in  any  line,  whole-hearted  in- 
dustry, love  of  truth,  temperance,  courage,  magnanimity,  soundness  of 
limb  and  mind).     Rep.,  535-6.     See  also  487. 

4.  "  Until  then  philosophers  are  kings,  or  the  kings  and  princes  of 
this  world  have  the  spirit  and  power  of  philosophy  and  political  power 
and  greatness  meet  in  one,  and  those  commoner  natures  who  follow 
either  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  are  compelled  to  stand  aside,  cities 
will  never  cease  from  ill  —  nor  the  human  race,  as  I  believe  —  and  then 
only  will  this  our  state  have  a  possibility  of  life  and  behold  the  light 
of  day." —  Rep.,  473. 


35  References  are  to  Jowett's  translation. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  89 

5.  Method  and  tests. —  Observation  of  future  guardians  from 
youth  upwards ;  deeds  to  be  performed ;  toils,  pains,  and  conflicts  to  be 
prescribed;  pupils  to  be  tried  by  enchantments;  to  be  tested  more 
thoroughly  than  gold  is  tested  in  the  fire,  "  to  discover  whether  they  are 
armed  against  all  enchantments  and  of  a  noble  bearing  always,  good 
guardians  of  themselves  and  of  the  music  which  they  have  learned,  and 
whether  they  retain  under  all  circumstances  a  rhythmical  and  har- 
monious nature  such  as  will  be  most  serviceable  to  the  man  himself  and 
to  the  state.  And  he  who  at  every  age,  as  boy  and  youth  and  in 
mature  life,  has  come  out  of  the  trial  victorious  and  pure  shall  be 
appointed  a  ruler  and  guardian  of  the  state;  he  shall  be  honored  in 
life  and  death." — Rep.,  413-14. 

6.  Both  sexes  to  be  educated. — "  Then  women  must  be  taught  music 
and  gymnastic  and  the  art  of  war,  which  they  must  practice  like  men? 
I  suppose  that  is  the  inference." — Rep.,  452. 

7.  Content  of  curriculum. — "  But  is  our  superintendence  to  go  no 
further,  and  are  the  poets  only  to  be  required  by  us  to  impress  a  good 
moral  on  their  poems  as  a  condition  of  writing  poetry  in  our  state? 
Or  is  the  same  control  to  be  exercised  over  other  artists,  and  are  they 
also  to  be  prohibited  from  exhibiting  the  opposite  forms  of  vice  and 
intemperance  and  meanness  and  indecency  in  sculpture  and  building 
and  other  decorative  arts ;  and  is  he  who  does  not  conform  to  this  rule 
of  ours  to  be  prohibited  from  practicing  his  art  in  our  state,  lest  the 
taste  of  our  citizen  be  corrupted  by  him  ?  .  .  .  Let  our  artists  rather  be 
those  who  are  gifted  to  discern  the  true  nature  of  beauty  and  grace; 
then  will  our  youth  dwell  in  a  land  of  health,  amid  fair  sights  and 
sounds,  and  beauty,  the  influence  of  fair  works,  will  meet  the  sense  like 
a  breeze  and  insensibly  draw  the  soul  even  in  childhood  into  harmony 
with  the  beauty  of  reason." 

Results  to  be  aimed  at. — "  Is  not  this,  I  said,  the  reason,  Glaucon, 
why  musical  training  is  so  powerful,  because  rhythm  and  harmony  find 
their  way  into  the  secret  places  of  the  soul,  on  which  they  mightily 
fasten,  bearing  grace  in  their  movements,  and  making  the  soul  graceful 
of  him  who  is  rightly  educated,  or  ungraceful  if  ill-educated ;  and  also 
because  he  who  has  received  this  true  education  of  the  inner  being 
will  most  shrewdly  perceive  omissions  or  faults  in  art  and  nature,  and 
with  a  true  taste,  while  he  praises  and  rejoices  over  and  receives 
into  his  soul  the  good,  and  becomes  noble  and  good,  he  will  justly 
blame  and  hate  the  bad  now  in  the  days  of  his  youth,  even  before 
he  is  able  to  know  the  reason  of  the  thing;  and  when  reason  comes 
he  will  recognize  and  salute  her  as  a  friend  with  whom  his  education 
has  made  him  long  familiar." 

"  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  neither  we  nor  our  guardians 
whom  we  have  to  educate  can  ever  become  musical  until  we  know  the 
essential  forms,  temperance,  courage,  liberality,  magnificence,  as  well  as 
the  cognate  and  contrary  forms  in  all  their  combinations,  and  can 
recognize  them  and  their  images  wherever  they  are  found,  not  slighting 


90  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

them   either  in  small  things   or  great,   but  believing  them  all  to  be 
within  the  sphere  of  one  art  and  study." —  Rep.,  401,  402. 

8.  Relation  of  body  and  mind. — "  Now  my  belief  is  .  .  .  not  that 
the  good  body  improves  the  soul,  but  that  the  good  soul  improves  the 
body.  .  .  .  Then  if  we  have  educated  the  mind,  the  minuter  care  of  the 
body  may  properly  be  committed  to  the  mind,  and  we  need  only  indicate 
general  principles  for  brevity's  sake."  (He  goes  on  to  speak  of  the 
necessity  of  abstinence  from  intoxication,  and  other  matters.  He  dis- 
parages athletic  training,  and  says  his  guardians  must  have  a  finer 
sort  of  training.) — Rep.,  403-4.     See  also  410,  411. 

9.  Habits  to  be  avoided.  Athletic  training  disparaged. —  Danger 
of  innovations  in  music  and  gymnastic.  "  This  is  what  Damon  tells  me, 
and  I  can  quite  believe  him ;  he  says  that  when  modes  of  music  change, 
the  fundamental  laws  of  the  state  always  change  with  them." —  Rep., 
424. 

10.  Arithmetic  "  above  all." — "  No  single  instrument  of  youthful 
education  has  such  mighty  power,  both  as  regards  domestic  economy 
and  politics  and  in  the  arts,  as  the  study  of  arithmetic.  Above  all 
arithmetic  stirs  up  him  who  is  by  nature  sleepy  and  dull,  and  makes 
him  quick  to  learn,  retentive,  shrewd,  and,  aided  by  art  divine,  he  makes 
progress  quite  beyond  his  natural  powers.  All  these,  if  only  the  legis- 
lator by  laws  and  institutions  can  banish  meanness  and  covetousness 
from  the  souls  of  the  disciples  and  enable  them  to  profit  by  them,  will 
be  excellent  and  suitable  instruments  of  education.  But  if  he  cannot 
do  this,  he  will  intentionally  create  in  them,  instead  of  wisdom,  the 
habit  of  craft." — Laws,  747. 

11.  Geometry. — "And  next  shall  we  inquire  whether  the  kindred 
science  also  concerns  us?  You  mean  geometry?  Yes.  Certainly,  he 
said ;  that  part  of  geometry  which  relates  to  war  is  clearly  our  con- 
cern. Yes,  I  said,  but  for  that  purpose  a  very  little  of  either  geometry 
or  calculation  will  be  enough ;  the  question  is  rather  of  the  higher  and 
greater  part  of  geometry,  whether  that  tends  towards  the  great  end,  I 
mean  towards  the  vision  of  the  idea  of  the  good.  .  .  .  True,  he  said. 
Then  if  geometry  compels  us  to  view  essence,  it  concerns  us;  if  gen- 
eration only,  it  does  not  concern  us." —  Rep.,  526. 

Ultimate  ends  and  aim. — "  And  do  you  not  know  also  that,  although 
they  use  and  reason  about  the  visible  forms,  they  are  thinking  not  of 
these,  but  of  the  ideals  which  they  resemble ;  not  of  the  figures  which 
they  draw,  but  of  the  absolute  square  and  the  absolute  diameter,  and 
so  on ;  .  .  .  they  are  really  seeking  for  the  things  themselves,  which 
can  only  be  seen  with  the  eyes  of  the  mind?     That  is  true." — Rep.,  510. 

12.  Value  of  special  training  for  general  ability. — "  Those  who 
have  a  natural  talent  for  calculation  are  generally  quick  in  every  other 
kind  of  knowledge ;  and  even  the  dull,  if  they  have  had  an  arithmetical 
training,  gain  in  quickness,  if  not  in  any  other  way."  "  And  in  all  de- 
partments of  study,  as  experience  proves,  any  one  who  has  studied  ge- 
ometry is  infinitely  quicker  of  apprehension." —  Rep.,  526-7. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  91 

13.  Play  in  education. — "According  to  my  view  he  who  would  be 
good  at  anything  must  practice  that  thing  from  his  youth  upwards, 
both  in  sport  and  earnest,  in  the  particular  way  which  the  work  re- 
quires ;  for  example,  he  who  is  to  be  a  good  builder  should  play  at 
building  children's  houses;  and  he  who  is  to  be  a  good  husbandman, 
at  tilling  the  ground ;  those  who  have  the  care  of  their  education  should 
provide  them  when  young  with  mimic  tools.  And  they  should  learn 
beforehand  the  knowledge  which  they  will  afterwards  require  for  their 
art.  For  example,  the  future  carpenter  should  learn  to  measure  or 
apply  the  line  in  play ;  and  the  future  warrior  should  learn  riding  or 
some  other  exercise  for  amusement,  and  the  teacher  should  endeavor 
to  direct  the  children's  inclinations  and  pleasures  by  the  help  of 
amusements  to  their  final  aim  in  life." — Laws,  643. 

(Have  we  here  the  germs  of  "gifts  and  occupations"?) 

14.  Stability  in  play  related  to  stability  of  institutions. — "  I  say 
that  in  states  generally  no  one  has  observed  that  the  plays  of  child- 
hood have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  permanence  or  want  of  per- 
manence in  legislation.  For  when  plays  are  ordered  with  a  view  to 
children  having  the  same  plays  and  amusing  themselves  after  the  same 
manner,  and  finding  delight  in  the  same  playthings,  the  more  solemn 
institutions  of  the  state  are  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed ;  whereas,  if 
sports  are  disturbed  and  innovations  are  made  in  them  and  they  con- 
stantly change  and  the  young  never  speak  of  their  having  the  same 
likings  or  the  same  established  notions  of  good  and  bad  taste,  either 
in  the  bearing  of  their  bodies  or  in  their  dress,  but  he  who  devises 
something  new  and  out-of-the-way  in  figures  and  colors  and  the  like 
is  held  in  special  honor,  we  may  truly  say  that  this  is  the  greatest 
injury  which  can  happen  in  a  state;  for  he  who  changes  the  sports 
is  secretly  changing  the  manners  of  the  young  and  making  the  old  to 
be  dishonored  among  them  and  the  new  to  be  honored." —  Laws,  797. 

15.  State  teachers. — "Of  all  these  things  (dancing,  gymnastic 
movements,  military  exercises)  there  ought  to  be  public  teachers  re- 
ceiving pay  from  the  state,  and  their  pupils  should  be  the  men  and 
boys  of  the  state  and  also  the  girls  and  women,  who  are  to  know  all 
these  things." — Laws,  813. 

16.  Freedom,  not  compulsion. — "And  therefore  calculation  and 
geometry  and  all  other  elements  of  instruction,  which  are  a  prepara- 
tion for  dialectic,  should  be  presented  to  the  mind  in  childhood,  not 
however  under  any  notion  of  forcing  them.  ...  A  freeman  ought  to  be 
a  freeman  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  Bodily  exercise  when  com- 
pulsory does  no  harm;  but  knowledge  which  is  acquired  under  com- 
pulsion has  no  hold  on  the  mind.  .  .  .  Do  not  use  compulsion,  but  let 
early  education  be  a  sort  of  amusement;  that  will  better  enable  you  to 
find  out  the  natural  bent." —  Rep.,  536-7. 

17.  "  And  the  education  must  begin  with  plays.  The  spirit  of  law 
must  be  imparted  to  them  in  music." —  Rep.,  425. 


gz  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


APPENDIX  II 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  ARISTOTLE'S  POLITICS 

Aristotle's  state. —  Aristotle's  state  is  the  basis  of  his  educational 
scheme.  His  "  politics  "  and  his  psychology  make  a  broad  foundation 
for  his  pedagogy.  The  state,  as  he  represents  it,  is  the  result  of  a  wide 
induction  on  his  part, —  in  fact  the  result  of  a  double  induction.  From 
this  point  of  view  it  may  be  called  a  generalized  state.  From  his 
careful  analysis  of  the  individual,  who  is  to  give  life  and  reality  to 
his  state,  it  may,  like  Plato's  state,  be  called  a  psychologic  state.  The 
following  outline  will  indicate  some  of  its  main  features :  — 

Aristotle's  Psychologic  state. —  Politics,  chiefly  Book  VII 
Outline. — 

Moderate  population ;  all  citizens  should  know  each  other. 

Territory  large  enough  to  be  "  all-producing,"  and  enable  the  inhabi- 
tants to  live  temperately  and  liberally  in  the  enjoyment  of  leisure. 

State  to  be  well-located  for  defense  and  other  purposes.  Various 
topographical  details  discussed. 

State  to  be  "self-sufficing"  in  regard  to  groups  or  classes  of  inhabit- 
ants. Hence  a  variety  of  groups,  though  under  this  general  limita- 
tion :  — "  Conditions  of  a  composite  whole  are  not  necessarily 
organic  parts  of  it." 

Two  general  groups :  — 

A.  Governing     group:  —  Citizens. —  I.     Elders,- councilors     (also 

priests),  with  legislative  and  deliberative  power.  2. 
Younger  men,- warriors,  with  executive  power.  Public 
tables  provided  for  this  group,  by  classes.  Land  allotted 
by  half  socialistic  scheme ;  two  portions  for  each  citizen, 
one  for  public  use  (religion  and  public  tables),  one  for 
private  use.  Latter  divided  into  two  lots,  one  near  city, 
one  on  frontier.  Land  preferably  tilled  by  slaves,  some 
public,  some  private.  Liberty  to  be  held  out  as  a  reward 
for  service.  Citizens  not  to  engage  in  any  form  of  pro- 
ductive industry, —  not  to  do  anything  "illiberal." 

Public   education   provided    for   Group   A    under   charge 
of  Directors  of  Education. 

B.  Governed    group:  —  Artisans,    husbandmen,    etc.;    non-citizens, 

no  land,  not  educated  by  state ;  receive  merely  education 
of  a  trade. 

Various  offices  ministering  to  different  needs  of  the  body  politic. 
Women  not  educated   equally  with  men.     Probably  to  have  domestic 
education  only. 
Criticism  of  his  state. —  Aristotle  thus  aims  at  the  ideal,  like  Plato. 
He  does  not  however  reach  the  transcendental.     Notwithstanding  his 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  93 

power  of  generalization  he  recommends  a  state  organization  which 
violates  both  nature  and  science.  His  limitations  and  his  arrangement 
of  classes  prevent  him  from  realizing  the  highest  ideal.  As  Davidson 
says,  his  ideal  is  a  static  one. 

Aristotle  thus  has  in  view  in  his  educational  plans  only  a  fraction  of 
the  population,  the  class  of  citizens  or  "  rulers." 36  He  arbitrarily 
excludes  all  who  engage  in  professional,  mechanical,  or  agricultural 
pursuits.  This  is  fatal  to  his  state.  It  does  not,  however,  vitiate  his 
educational  laws  and  principles  as  far  as  they  go,  though  it  limits  their 
application  and  leaves  noticeable  gaps  in  educational  theory  and  practice. 
Another  limitation  appears  in  the  fact  that  he  makes  no  provision  for 
women's  education  outside  the  family. 

This  brings  us  to  an  analysis  of  Aristotle's  educational  scheme,  which 
will  give  various  interesting  details  and  show  the  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics of  his  pedagogy. 

Aim. —  Aristotle's  aim  is  to  develop  his  exclusive  individual  on  all 
sides  for  what  he  calls  "  leisure,"  or  better  for  a  cultured  life  as  op- 
posed to  a  life  of  business.  He  says,  "  I  must  repeat  once  again,  the 
first  principle  of  all  action  is  leisure  (diagoge)."  37  The  end  is  a  very 
inclusive  one  as  seen  in  his  remark,  "  education  should  not  be  ex- 
clusively directed  to  this  (the  physical),  or  any  other  single  end."38 
He  finds  the  fundamental  principle  in  man  and  provides  for  developing 
it.  On  the  psychological  side  this  is  the  expression  of  self-activity, 
the  "  self-determination "  of  the  individual.  The  outcome  is  to  be 
civic  virtue. 

Education  to  be  public, —  the  same  for  all. —  As  to  uniformity  in 
the  application  of  educational  principles  and  the  working  out  of  edu- 
cational ends,  "  since  the  whole  city  has  one  end,  it  is  manifest  that 
education  should  be  one  and  the  same  for  all,  and  that  it  should  be 
public  and  not  private, —  not  as  at  present  when  every  one  looks  after 
his  own  children  separately  and  gives  them  separate  instruction  of  the 
sort  which  he  thinks  best;  the  training  in  things  which  are  of  common 
interest  should  be  the  same  for  all.  Neither  must  we  suppose  that 
any  one  of  the  citizens  belongs  to  himself,  for  they  all  belong  to  the 

36  See  outline  of  state  given  above. 

"Pol.,  VII,  14:12-18;  22;  15:1-6;  VIII,  3:2,  6. 

This  quotation  is  interesting: — "Since  the  end  of  individuals  and 
of  the  state  is  the  same,  the  end  of  the  best  man  and  the  best  state 
must  also  be  the  same.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  there  ought  to 
exist  in  both  of  them  the  virtues  of  leisure;  for  peace,  as  has  often 
been  repeated,  is  the  end  of  war,  and  leisure  of  toil.  But  leisure  and 
cultivation  may  be  promoted  not  only  by  those  virtues  which  are  prac- 
ticed in  leisure,  but  also  by  some  of  those  which  are  useful  in  business. 
For  many  necessaries  of  life  have  to  be  supplied  before  we  can  have 
leisure.  Therefore  a  city  must  be  temperate  and  brave  and  able  to 
endure." 

38  Pol.,  VIII,  4:2. 


94  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

state  and  are  each  of  them  a  part  of  the  state,  and  the  care  of  each 
part  is  inseparable  from  the  care  of  the  whole."  3y 
Aristotle  analyzes  his  individual  as  follows :  — 

Educational  psychology. — "  There  are  three  things  which  make  men 
good  and  virtuous ;  these  are  nature,  habit,  and  reason.  .  .  .  Nature, 
habit  and  reason  must  be  in  harmony  with  one  another."  And  again, 
"  Now  the  soul  of  man  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  has 
reason  in  itself  and  the  other,  not  having  reason  in  itself,  is  able  to 
obey  reason.  And  we  call  a  man  good  because  he  has  the  virtues  of 
these  two  parts.  In  which  of  them  the  end  is  likely  to  be  found  is 
no  matter  of  doubt  to  those  who  adopt  our  division,  for  in  the  world 
both  of  nature  and  of  art  the  inferior  always  exists  for  the  sake  of 
the  better  or  superior,  and  the  better  or  superior  is  that  which  has  rea- 
son.40 The  reason  too  in  our  ordinary  way  of  speaking  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  for  there  is  a  practical  and  a  speculative  reason,  and  there 
must  be  a  corresponding  division  of  actions;  the  actions  of  the  nat- 
urally better  principle  are  to  be  preferred  by  those  who  have  it  in  their 
power  to  attain  to  both  or  to  all,  for  that  is  always  to  every  one  the 
most  eligible  which  is  the  highest  attainable  by  him."  41 

With  these  general  remarks  as  to  ends  and  organization,  we  come 
to  some  specifications  as  to  means  and  order  of  training.  If  we  expect 
a  complete  and  detailed  account  of  a  system  of  education  calculated  to 
carry  out  the  author's  principles,  we  shall  be  disappointed.  Aristotle 
is  very  incomplete  and  fragmentary  here.  Such  a  symmetrical  scheme 
as  Davidson  guesses  at,  and  presents  as  rather  more  than  a  guess, 
may  or  may  not  have  been  in  his  mind.  He  appears  not  to  have  worked 
his  plans  out  to  that  extent.  But  he  presents  enough  to  be  suggestive 
and  to  give  a  general  idea  of  his  pedagogical  thought. 

Order  of  development. —  And  first  as  to  the  order  of  development. 
Aristotle  is  very  emphatic  here.  He  says  distinctly,42  "  the  care  of  the 
body  ought  to  precede  that  of  the  soul  and  the  training  of  the  appetitive 
part  should  follow ;  none  the  less  our  care  of  it  should  be  for  the  sake 
of  the  reason,  and  our  care  of  the  body  for  the  sake  of  the  soul." 
And  he  impresses  it  again  in  these  words,  "  Now  it  is  clear  that  in 
education  habit  must  go  before  reason,  and  the  body  before  the  mind."  43 

Periods  of  education. —  From  another  point  of  view,  order  of  de- 
velopment may  be  described  by  means  of  the  periods  into  which  he 
divides  the  life  of  the  child.  He  makes  six  clearly  marked  divisions, 
i°,  the  pre-natal  period;  2°,  infancy;  3°,  to  five  years;  40,  five  to 
seven ;  50,  seven  to  puberty ;  6°,  puberty  to  twenty-one.44  We  should 
be  fortunate  indeed  if  he  were  as  explicit  in  describing  the  training 
suitable  for  these  different  periods  as  he  is  in  marking  out  the  periods 

39  Do.,  VIII,  1 :  1-4. 

40  Do.,  VII,   14:0-10.     See  also   13:10-12. 

41  Do.,  VII,  14:  io-ii. 

42  Do.,  VII,  15:10. 

«  Do.,  VIII,  3  :  13.    See  VII,  13 :  13  and  VII,  15 : 1-10. 
44  Do.,  VII,  17. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  95 

themselves,  but  we  find  little  said  except  for  the  early  periods,  and 
our  study  calls  for  something  on  the  secondary  period  particularly;  even 
here  however  something  useful  is  gained,  if  we  use  our  opportunity. 

First  three  periods. —  For  the  first  period  he  prescribes  special  con- 
ditions for  procreation  calculated  to  secure  worthy  offspring.  For  the 
second  and  third  he  merely  makes  suggestions  as  to  the  diet  and  physical 
conditions  best  calculated  to  produce  a  proper  citizen.  As  to  this 
second  period  he  says,  "  No  demand  should  be  made  upon  the  child 
for  study  or  labor,  lest  its  growth  be  impeded ;  and  there  should  be 
sufficient  motion  to  prevent  the  limbs  from  being  inactive.  This  can 
be  secured  in  part  by  amusement,  but  the  amusement  should  not  be 
vulgar  or  tiring  or  riotous.  The  directors  of  education,  as  they  are 
termed,  should  be  careful  what  tales  or  stories  the  children  hear;  for 
the  sports  of  children  are  designed  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  business 
of  later  life,  and  should  be  for  the  most  part  imitations  of  the  occupa- 
tions which  they  will  hereafter  pursue  in  earnest."  45 

Crying. —  In  these  words  and  in  others  in  the  same  chapter  he  shows 
commendable  solicitude  for  the  environment  of  the  child,46  that  it 
shall  be  made  clean  and  wholesome.  Again,  he  has  a  word  for  the 
crying  of  the  period,  believing  that  "  those  are  wrong  who  in  the  Laws 
attempt  to  check  the  loud  crying  and  screaming  of  children,  for  these 
contribute  toward  their  growth  and  in  a  manner  exercise  their  bodies. 
Straining  the  voice  has  an  effect  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  re- 
tention of  the  breath  in  violent  exertions." 4T 

Fourth  and  fifth  periods.  Formal  education  through  "  liberal " 
studies  only. —  In  the  fourth  period  "  they  must  look  on  at  the  pur- 
suits which  they  are  hereafter  to  learn."  The  fifth  period  presumably 
is  intended  to  be  devoted  to  the  more  formal  side  of  education.  And 
here  it  should  be  noted  that  Aristotle  lays  great  stress  upon  liberal 
as  opposed  to  illiberal  studies.  "  There  can  be  no  doubt,"  he  says, 
"  that  children  should  be  taught  those  useful  things  which  are  really 
necessary,  but  not  all  things ;  for  occupations  are  divided  into  liberal 
and  illiberal  and  to  young  children  should  be  imparted  only  such  kinds 
of  knowledge  as  will  be  useful  to  them  without  vulgarizing  them. 
And  any  occupation  or  art  or  science  which  makes  the  body  or  the 
soul  or  the  mind  of  the  freeman  less  fit  for  the  practice  or  exercise  of 
virtue  is  vulgar ;  wherefore  we  call  those  arts  vulgar  which  tend  to 
deform  the  body,  and  likewise  all  paid  employments,  for  they  absorb 
and  degrade  the  mind." 

Not  too  detailed  and  technical  training. — "There  are  also 
some  liberal  arts  quite  proper  for  a  freeman  to  acquire,  but  only  in  a 
certain  degree,  and  if  he  attend  to  them  too  closely,  in  order  to  at- 
tain perfection  in  them,  the  same  evil  effects  will  follow.  The  ob- 
ject also  which  a  man  sets  before  him  makes  a  great  difference ;  if  he 

45Do,  VII,  17:4-5. 
46  Do.,  VII,  17  :  7-9- 
"Do,  VII,  17:6. 


96  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

does  or  learns  anything  for  his  own  sake  or  for  the  sake  of  his  friends 
or  with  a  view  to  excellence,  the  action  will  not  appear  illiberal ;  but 
if  done  for  the  sake  of  others  the  very  same  action  will  be  thought 
menial  and  servile."  48 

That  is,  anything  which  smacks  of  profession  or  trade  is  illiberal. 
Aristotle  had  the  genuine  Greek  thought  as  to  such  things.  Free- 
booting  was  gentlemanly  beside  them. 

The  curriculum.  Four  branches. —  Regarding  the  actual  studies,  he 
says,49 

"  The  received  subjects  of  instruction  are  partly  of  a  liberal  and 
partly  of  an  illiberal  character.  The  customary  branches  of  education 
are  in  number  four;  they  are  (i)  reading  and  writing,  (2)  gymnastic 
exercises  (3),  music,  to  which  is  sometimes  added  (4)  drawing.  Of 
these,  reading,  writing,  and  drawing  are  regarded  as  useful  for  the  pur- 
poses of  life  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  gymnastic  exercises  are  thought 
to  infuse  courage.  Concerning  music  a  doubt  may  be  raised ;  in  our 
own  day  most  men  cultivate  it  for  the  sake  of  pleasure,  but  originally  it 
was  included  in  education,  because  nature  herself,  as  has  been  often 
said,  requires  that  we  should  be  able  not  only  to  work  well,  but  to  use 
leisure  well." 

Physical  education  not  to  include  athletics. —  Most  of  the  remain- 
ing portion,50  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  two  of  these  subjects,  gym- 
nastics and  music.  Both  are  to  be  of  the  liberalizing  type.  Educa- 
tional gymnastics,  for  example,  do  not  include  athletics.51  "  Of  those 
states  which  in  our  own  day  seem  to  take  the  greatest  care  of  children 
some  aim  at  producing  in  them  an  athletic  habit,  but  they  only  injure 
their  forms  and  stunt  their  growth."  52  And  again,  "  It  is  an  admitted 
principle  that  gymnastic  exercises  should  be  employed  in  education  and 
that  for  children  they  should  be  of  a  lighter  kind,  avoiding  severe 
regimen  or  painful  toil  lest  the  growth  of  the  body  be  impaired.  The 
evil  of  excessive  training  in  early  years  is  strikingly  proved  by  the 
example  of  the  Olympic  victors ;  for  not  more  than  two  or  three  of 
them  have  gained  a  prize  as  boys  and  as  men;  their  early  training  and 
severe    gymnastic    exercises    exhausted    their    constitutions." 53 

The  kind  of  "  music  "  prescribed. —  Music  is  with  Aristotle,  as 
with  the  Greeks  of  all  ages,  a  prime  educational  force.54  It  may 
be  reckoned  under  education,  amusement,  and  intellectual  enjoyment, 
he  says.  "  In  addition  to  the  common  pleasure,  felt  and  shared  by 
all  (for  the  pleasure  given  by  music  is  natural  and  therefore  adapted 
to  all  ages  and  natures),  may  it  not  have  also  some  influence  over 

48  Do.,  VIII,  2:3-6;   Conf.  Cicero,  De  Of.,  1:42. 

49  Do.,  VIII,  2:6-3;  12,  5:4- 
5°Do.,  VIII,  3ff. 

"Do.,  VIII,  4:1-3;  5-7- 

52  Do.,  VIII,  4:1. 

53  Do.,  VIII,  4:7,  8. 

54  Do.,  VIII,  3 : 8,  9.    See  also  VIII,  5. 


PLATO  AND  ARISTOTLE  97 

the  character  and  the  soul?  It  must  have  such  an  influence,  if  char- 
acters are  affected  by  it.  And  that  they  are  so  affected  is  proved 
by  the  power  which  the  songs  of  Olympus  and  many  others  exercise, 
for  beyond  question  they  inspire  enthusiasm,  and  enthusiasm  is  an 
emotion  of  the  ethical  part  of  the  soul."  55 

As  to  the  kind  of  music,  he  lays  down  the  following  principles :  — 

"Thus  then  we  reject  the  professional  instruments  and  also  the  pro- 
fessional mode  of  education  in  music, —  and  by  professional  we  mean 
that  which  is  adopted  in  contests,  for  in  this  the  performer  practices 
the  art  not  for  the  sake  of  his  own  improvement  but  in  order  to  give 
pleasure,  and  that  of  a  vulgar  sort,  to  his  hearers.  For  this  reason 
the  execution  of  such  music  is  not  the  part  of  a  freeman,  but  of  a  paid 
performer,  and  the  result  is  that  the  performers  are  vulgarized,  for 
the  end  at  which  they  aim  is  bad.  The  vulgarity  of  the  spectator  tends 
to  lower  the  character  of  the  music  and  therefore  of  the  performers; 
they  look  to  him, —  he  makes  them  what  they  are  and  fashions  even 
their  bodies  by  the  movements  which  he  expects  them  to  exhibit."  56 

"  But  for  the  purposes  of  education,  as  I  have  already  said,  those 
modes  and  melodies  should  be  employed  which  are  ethical,  such  as 
the  Dorian,  though  we  may  include  any  others  which  are  approved  by 
philosophers  who  have  had  a  musical  education."  57 

Sixth  period —  For  the  last  period  of  education  he  makes  only  these 
general  suggestions :  — 

"  When  boyhood  is  over  three  years  should  be  spent  in  other  studies ; 
the  period  of  life  which  follows  may  then  be  devoted  to  hard  exercise 
and  strict  regimen.  Men  ought  not  to  labor  at  the  same  time  with  their 
minds  and  with  their  bodies ;  for  the  two  kinds  of  labor  are  opposed 
to  one  another ;  the  labor  of  the  body  impedes  the  mind,  and  the  labor 
of  the  mind  the  body."58 

It  is  to  be  greatly  regretted  that  he  has  not  given  more  on  this  period. 
We  may  assume  that  he  refers  here  to  the  adolescent  life  from  12  to 
21,  but  this  is  merely  a  plausible  conjecture.  Again  we  may  reasonably 
assume  that  the  studies  are  the  typical  ones  that  Greece  assigned  to 
this  period, —  science,  perhaps  advanced  work  in  literature  (though 
both  Plato  and  Aristotle  are  very  strict  in  defining  the  limits  of  litera- 
ture), and  dialectics.  But  how  much  science,  whether  the  double 
course  of  the  Republic  or  the  more  elementary  course  of  the  Laws, 
we  are  not  told.  We  may  believe,  however,  as  the  end  of  education 
lay  in  the  contemplation  of  pure  reason,  in  "  theoria,"  and  in  culture 
rather  than  practical  life,  that  he  inclined  more  to  the  idea  of  the  Re- 
public than  to  .that  of  the  Laws. 

End  in  view. —  It  is  certainly  interesting  to  find  him  making  a  special 
feature  of  adolescence  and  prescribing  for  it  a  special  regimen.     His  dis- 
ss Do.,  VIII,  5 :  14-16.    See  also  VIII,  6 : 8. 
56  Do.,  VIII,  6:  15-16. 
67  Do.,  VIII,  7:8. 
58  Do.,  VIII,  4:9. 


98  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

tribution  of  intellectual  work  and  physical  training  is  also  significant.59 
But  while  his  view  seems  sound,  considering  his  premises,  we  should 
substitute  for  his  plan  here  a  pedagogical  combination  of  the  mental 
and  physical. 

The  individual  and  the  state. —  In  Aristotle's  state  the  individual  is 
still  the  center.  His  scheme  thus  bears  the  stamp  of  the  period.  But 
his  educational  plan,  which  is  more  systematic,  more  purposeful,  and 
far  better  organized  than  those  of  his  day,  would  relieve  the  danger 
of  individualism.  He  provides  for  developing  physical  and  psychical 
powers  so  as  to  make  a  balanced  individual,  a  man  of  poise,  able  to 
live  by  reason.  Hence  the  state  would  never  be  distraught  by  the 
unleashing  of  undisciplined  forces  in  his  educated  circle.  In  this  way 
his  scheme  was  a  corrective.  It  would  have  been  a  larger  one,  if  he  had 
enlarged  the  scope  of  its  application.  Outside  the  narrow  world  for 
which  he  planned  this  education  dangers  still  stalked  in  all  their  native 
power. 

To  sum  up  in  the  form  of  a  scheme  the  educational  details  of  the 
Politics  we  have  the  following  outline :  — 

Education  of  a  moiety  of  the  male  population.     No  provision  for 
women. 

State  Education. 

Aims:  —  Development  of  the  whole  man  for  culture  and  for  civic  life. 

Body  training  before  mental  training, 
ist  period- prenatal  period,- best  conditions  for  procreation. 
2nd  period,-  infancy,-  careful  diet ;  exercise  ;  allow  to  cry. 
3rd  period,-  to   5-  suitable  exercise ;   no  demand   for  study  or  labor ; 

special  care  to  have  wholesome  environment.     Sports  preparatory 

for  life. 
4th  period,- 5  to  7,- they  are  to  look  on  pursuits  they  are  hereafter 

to  learn. 
5th   period-  7   to   puberty-  study :  -  reading,    writing,    music,    drawing, 

gymnastics      (not     severe).     Athletics     discountenanced.     Studies 

"  liberal,"  as  opposed  to  "  illiberal." 
6th  period- puberty  to  21,-1.   "other   studies,"  perhaps  the  basis   of 

the  later  trivium  and  quadrivium;  2.  severer  physical  training. 

s^ Do.,  VIII,  4:9;  5  =  4. 


VII 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION   IN   ROME  —  EARLY  PERIOD 

Differences  in  race  between  Romans  and  Greeks. —  A  psy- 
chological analysis  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  reveals  striking 
differences  between  them.  Characteristics  differ  not  merely 
in  proportion,  but  in  kind.  The  once  reputed  oneness  of  race 
breaks  down  even  at  a  cursory  glance.  Some  of  the  contrasts 
between  the  two  peoples  are  brought  out  by  the  following  com- 
parison in  which  various  characteristics  are  summarized. 

Contrasts  in  Greek  and  Roman  Characters.1 

Greeks 2  Romans 

1.  Sophrosyne       (temperantia).     I.  Virtus        (fortitude,       etc.). 

Arete    (virtus),    "courage,  Prudentia.     Justitia.     Tem- 

love  of  country  "  (spontan-  perantia.    Constantia.   Hon- 

eous    but    not    deep).     Eu-  estas.      Gravitas.      Prosaic 

kosima  (grace,  esthetic  ex-  and  practical  ideas, 

pression  in  all  lines).  Energy,  governing  power,,  in- 

Proportion,    harmonious    de-  tense  personality,  conscious 

velopment  of  physical   and  worth ;  stronger  elements  of 

mental  elements.  character  prominent. 

2.  "  Innate  love  of  freedom  and     2.  Bound  up  intensely  in  social 

independence"     (free    per-  unit  and  its  expansion,  the 

sonality).      Self    assertion.  state.     Free     and     intense 

Development  for  individual,  public    life.     "  Respect    for 

primary,    for    state,    secon-  authority  and  established  in- 

dary.  stitutions." 

1  Compiled  from  different  studies  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Forti- 
fied from  original  sources  and  classical  history.  It  is  unnecessary, 
even  impracticable,  to  give  detailed  references.  Those  familiar  with 
the  studies  and  authors  will  easily  trace. 

These  are  general  characteristics  that  became  conspicuous  as  the  two 
peoples  developed. 

It  will  be  interesting  here  to  refer  to  Chapter  I  which  gives  some  hints 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  differences  between  the  two  peoples. 

2  See  chapter  IV,  page  50.    Repeated  here  to  facilitate  contrast. 

99 


IOO 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Individuality  through  the 
state  and  in  the  state.  Au- 
thority of  state  from  the  in- 
dividual. 

3.  Versatility.    Many-sided    ac- 

tivity. 

4.  Power  to  generalize,  idealize, 

universalize,  and  power  to 
make  ideals  concrete  and 
objective.  "  Kept  going  out 
from  simple  life  and  ideas 
of  truth  and  proportion  to  a 
larger  life,  and  thus  height- 
ened capacity  and  power." 

Intense  intellectuality  and 
fearlessness  in  taking  up 
and  prosecuting  to  the  end 
any  subject  or  investigation 
regardless  of  issues.  "  Love 
of  knowledge  for  its  own 
sake,  unfettered  by  form, 
religion,  or  caste." 

"  Creative  imagination  gave 
form  to  narrow  realities  of 
life." 

5.  Religion  not  abstract.     Gods 

idealized  human  personali- 
ties (friendly).  "Nature 
and  life  full  of  deity." 

A  joyful  religion  of  freedom 
and  spontaneity. 

"  Religious  concepts,  both  the 
highest  and  simplest,  open 
to  all,"  not  limited  as  in 
Orient. 

Greeks  saw  bright  and  cheer- 
ful side.  Moulded  all  in  es- 
thetic lines. 

6.  "  Virtuous  life  a  beautiful  and 

happy  one,"  in  harmony 
with  self  and  external  rela- 
tions." 
No  "deep  religious  sense  or 
reverence.  No  high  con- 
ception of  abstract  duty." 
No  strong  and  steady  devo- 
tion to  principle.    No  genius 


State  existed  in  and  through 
the  individual. 


3.  Stability,   persistence.     Rath- 

er narrow  interests. 

4.  A  strong  tendency  to  the  ab- 

stract and  formal  (devoted 
to  set  forms).  "Disin- 
clination to  speculation  and 
esthetics,"  but  power  to  de- 
velop a  certain  strength  in 
these  directions. 

Pure  intellectuality  did  not 
appeal  strongly. 

Lack  of  imagination.  Ro- 
mans occupied  with  things 
as  they  were  and  their  re- 
lations. 


5.  Religion  abstract,  formal,  un- 
imaginative, awe-ful,  seri- 
ious.  Gods  not  "  idealized 
personalities." 
Romans  saw  a  deep  spiritual 
side  to  everything. 


6.  Strong  moral  nature.  "  Love 
for  directness  and  truth." 
Felt  obligation  to  law,  duty, 
justice.  Genius  for  order 
and  system. 
But  Romans  were  utilitarian, 
practical,  cold,  calculating, 
unsympathetic,  formal. 


ROME  — EARLY  PERIOD 


107 


for  order  and  system.  Gen- 
ius   took    other    directions. 

Greeks  "  subtle  and  genial." 
Not  conspicuous  for  solid- 
ity. Not  highly  developed 
in  truthfulness. 

Showed  broad  and  varied  hu- 
man sympathy. 

No  strong  family  life. 
Woman  subordinate  and  in- 
ferior. 


8. 


"  Real  family  life,"  strong, 
compact.  Elements  mu- 
tually helpful  and  regardful. 
Woman  an  important  and 
influential  factor,  a  com- 
manding figure,  coordinate, 
not  subordinate. 

Education  natural.  Devoted 
to  practical  ends. 

Careful  attention  to  secure 
results  for  self,  friends, 
state. 

Order  and  system  prominent. 


8.  "  Education  instinctive  pro- 
duct of  life  and  people ; 
spontaneous."  Also  out- 
.  growth  of  theory  and  dis- 
cussion. 

At  its  foundation,  a  realiza- 
tion of  capacity. 

Central  idea  to  produce  a  bal- 
ance in  the  factors  of  life. 

"  Unity.     Comprehensiveness. 

Proportion.     Aimfulness." 

Little  system  or  organization. 

Most  prominent  characteristics  of  Romans. —  The  most 
striking  characteristic  of  the  Romans  evidently  was  their  genius 
for  organization,  their  predilection  for  system  and  for  work- 
ing out  formal  details.  It  is  not  necessary  to  prove  it,  for  it 
has  been  recognized  by  the  world  through  all  the  centuries 
since  Rome  was  an  active  power.  To  attempt  to  explain  it 
at  length  would  be  interesting,  but  it  would  be  beyond  our  main 
purpose  here.  We  accept  it  as  a  fact  and  must  expect  it  to 
give  character  to  Roman  education.  We  may  say  that  sterility 
of  soil,  a  location  not  specially  conducive  to  commerce,  but 
strategic  for  military  purposes,  and  the  happy  union  of  tribes 
and  warring  elements  in  her  early  history  made  Rome  a  mili- 
tary nation  and  directed  her  naturally  to  empire  building  not 
only  for  her  own  safety,  but  as  an  outlet  for  her  strong  quali- 
ties.3    Empire  building  requires  and  develops  practical  organ- 

3  See  Ihne's  Rome,  1-2. 


xo2  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

izing  power.  But  this  is  only  a  surface  explanation.  The 
quality  was  in  the  basal  race  before  it  reached  Rome ;  it  was 
not  merely  a  result  of  circumstances  after  that  event.4  With 
such  contrast  in  character  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans 
we  should  expect  to  find  striking  contrasts  in  their  schemes  of 
education.  Such  contrasts  there  were.  Especially  should  we 
expect  to  find  Roman  education  well  organized. 

Two  epochs  in  education. —  Roman  education  is  naturally 
divided  into  two  epochs,  I,  that  in  which  old  Roman  ideas 
ruled  exclusively,  or  practically  so ;  2,  that  in  which  foreign 
influence  profoundly  modified  Roman  thought  and  aims.  The 
first  extended,  roughly,  to  the  Punic  Wars,  or  to  about  250 
B.  C.  The  second  reached  onward  from  this  time  to  the  early 
Christian  centuries.  The  dividing  point  was  the  period  when 
Rome  began  that  intimate  contact  with  Magna  Grascia  and 
mother  Greece  that  meant  eventually  the  fall  of  Greece  and  a 
fusion  of  Greek  and  Roman  ideals  into  a  culture  that  was  to 
be  the  dominant  influence  in  the  West.  Though  in  fixing  this 
dividing  line  the  characteristics  of  the  two  epochs  overlap 
somewhat,  it  is  the  most  logical  bound.  The  two  periods  are 
so  distinct  that  they  are  easily  discriminated. 

For  the  sake  of  comparison  and  to  get  a  more  appreciative 
idea  of  secondary  education  we  find  ourselves  here,  as  in  Greek 
education,  urged  to  give  brief  attention  to  elementary  educa- 
tion before  touching  the  secondary  period. 

Elementary  education. —  The  educational  aim  in  the  early 
period  of  Roman  education  just  referred  to  was  to  develop  a 
hardy,  practical  youth,  capable  of  maintaining  family  tradi- 
tions and  the  state.  The  state  was  undoubtedly  supreme,  but 
we  can  perhaps  discern  a  greater  tendency  to  individual  initia- 
tive than  in  Athens.  At  least  there  was  family  initiative. 
Perhaps  if  we  could  compare  the  two  cities  at  exactly  the  same 
dates  their  predominant  units  would  be  found  the  same. 

Practical  nature  of  studies  and  educational  material. — 

4  The  characteristics  in  question  were  found  in  Dravidians  and  a 
Dravidian  amalgamation,  known  as  the  Kushika  race,  that  spread  west- 
ward and  left  its  influence  in  Italy.  There  is  a  Semitic  element  in 
Roman  thought.  Rome  was  distinct  from  Athens  in  the  elements  of 
her  population.  She  was  more  comparahle  to  Sparta  in  this  respect. 
See  Hewitt,  Ruling  Races,  I :  XIV-XVI,  LXI,  296  ff. 


ROME  — EARLY  PERIOD  103 

From  what  has  been  said  we  should  expect  that  the  training 
employed  to  carry  out  this  Roman  ideal  would  be  very  prac- 
tical. From  the  nature  of  the  case,  reading,  writing  and  num- 
ber, from  the  point  of  view  of  utility,  would  be  relatively  more 
prominent  in  Rome  than  in  Athens.  In  reading  the  Romans 
at  first  used  material  very  different  from  that  found  in  early 
Athenian  education,  but  material  entirely  in  keeping  with  the 
Roman  type  of  mind.  It  consisted  of  the  XII  Tables  that 
must  be  learned  by  heart.5  It  was  not  long  however  before  a 
Latin  Homer  came  in  to  claim  a  share  of  the  children's  atten- 
tion, and  eventually  indigenous  Latin  literature  furnished  read- 
ing matter.6  In  these  standard  subjects  the  standard  meth- 
ods described  in  Chapter  V  were  used.7  We  should  expect 
this,  even  the  primeval  rote  learning,  which  we  found  still 
lingering  there.  Such  methods  easily  adapt  themselves  to 
unpedagogical  times. 

Moral  training. —  But  the  Romans  made  more  of  moral 
training  than  of  that  which  has  just  been  noted.  This  would 
be  expected  of  a  practical  people.  Their  method  here  was  the 
best  that  has  ever  been  devised  for  perpetuating  national 
ideals, —  training  through  imitation  and  careful  guidance  and 
surveillance.8  Their  models  were  those  of  their  environment 
and  those  cherished  in  their  folk-lore  and  were  well  calculated 
to  appeal  to  young  minds.  If  an  over-dose  of  precept  is  found, 
we  certainly  find  with  it  elements  of  method  well  adapted  to 
young  and  growing  citizens.  As  in  later  times,  moral  senti- 
ments probably  met  the  boy  also  in  his  writing  copies.9 

Discipline  and  incentives. —  Discipline  must  always  be 
considered  a  part  of  method,  even  of  that  which  applies  to 
ordinary  studies  like  reading  and  writing.     All  testimony  goes 

5  Horace,  Ars  Poet,  322  ft.;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  399  (see  also  333~4)  ; 
Pliny,  Epist,  VIII,  14. 

"Discebamus  enim  pueri  duodecim,  ut  carmen  necessarium,  quas  jam 
nemo  discit,"  Cicero,  Leg.,  II,  23   (Becker's  Gallns). 

6"Meam  (orationem)  in  ilium  pueri  omnes  tamquam  dictata  perdis- 
cant,"  Cicero,  Q.  F.,  Ill,  1:4;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  398. 

7  Becker's  Gallus,  189;  Pliny,  Epist.,  VIII,  14;  Conf.  Tacitus,  Or.; 
Monroe,  op.  cit.,  362,  398. 

8  Juvenal,  Sat.,  XIV;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  319  f.   (see  also  401). 

»  Horace,  Sat,  I,  4;  Pliny  Epist.,  Ill,  3;  Juvenal,  Sat,  XIV;  Tacitus, 
Or.;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  362-3,  396,  411,  420. 


104  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

to  show  that  discipline  was  harsh  in  Rome.1*  Learning  was 
not  an  easy  nor  a  honeyed  task.  Plautus  (Bac.  Ill,  13)  says, 
"  And  then  when  you  were  reading  your  book,  if  you  made  a 
mistake  in  a  single  syllable,  your  skin  would  be  made  as  spotted 
as  your  nurse's  gown."  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  emulation  and  the  stimulus  of  prizes  had  their  appli- 
cation in  this  early  education.11  They  would  not  be  discord- 
ant with  early  Roman  ideas.  What  we  find  in  later  times  in 
this  direction  is  perhaps  a  developed  custom,  not  a  new 
discovery. 

Home  education. —  In  early  Rome  instruction  was  fre- 
quently, if  not  generally,  carried  on  in  the  home,  which  was  a 
strong  one.  It  was  much  stronger  than  the  Athenian  home, 
because  the  mother  had  a  more  substantial  position  and  was 
an  influential  factor  in  her  children's  education.12  Two 
strong  teachers  made  the  home  an  impressive  school.  Another 
indication  of  the  changed  position  of  woman,  which  is  appro- 
priately mentioned  here,  is  the  fact  that  this  education  of  the 
elementary  period  was  shared  by  both  sexes. 

Ludi. —  Schools  for  both  sexes. —  There  were  also  from 
an  early  date  outside  schools  to  which  children  could  be 
sent,13  —  simple  affairs,  but  in  accord  with  Roman  ideas.  We 
have  a  record  of  them  as  early  as  the  fourth  century  B.  C,  and 
they  seem  then  to  be  a  regular  institution,  so  that  they  probably 
began  at  a  much  earlier  date.  Here  too  provision  was  made 
for  both  sexes,  and  it  is  significant  that  school  privileges  were 
extended  to  girls  even  beyond  what  is  technically  called  pri- 
mary education.14 

"Horace,  Sat,  I,  3:117  ff;  Epist.,  II,  1:70;  Arts  Poet,  343; 

11  See  Clarke's  Educ.  of  Children  at  Rome,  and  general  reference 
books. 

12  Cicero,  Brutus,  210;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  362,  410-11;  Pliny,  op.  cit.t 
III,  3;  VIII,  14:  Tac.  Or..  28. 

13  Martial,  Epigs.,  IX,  8;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  399-400.  See  Livy,  III,  44, 
"Virgini  venienti  in  Forum  (ibi  namque  in  tabernis  literarum  ludi 
erant)  minister  decemviri  libidinis  manum  injecit," — quoted  in  Becker's 
Gallus ;  Conf.  Livy,  V,  27  (do.). 

14  Before  Rome  introduced  her  common  sense  way  of  looking  at 
things,  girls  were  practically  left  out  of  account  in  educational  schemes, 
except  in  primitive  tribes,  and  they  played  a  minor  part  there.  After 
a  few  centuries,  especially  after  the  early  and  fresher  centuries  of 
Christianity  had  passed,  education  again  dropped  them  from  its  rolls, 
to  a  large  extent,  and  became  one-sided  once  more. 


ROME  — EARLY  PERIOD  105 

Physical  training. —  But  we  must  not  forget  physical 
training.  The  hardy  Roman  character  would  make  this  one  of 
the  most  natural  parts  of  education.  Mention  of  this  has  been 
reserved  for  this  place,  because  it  was  not  a  part  of  the  school, 
technically  regarded,  as  in  Greece.  It  was  of  a  simple  nature, 
and  the  appliances  were  also  simple,  much  simpler  and  more 
practical  than  in  Athens.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  formal 
plan  such  as  that  found  in  the  palaestra.  Spontaneous  games 
and  exercises  and  the  father's  and  mother's  guidance  and 
teaching  were  probably  sufficient.  There  was  no  attempt  at 
the  esthetics  of  physical  training.  Health  and  power  were  the 
ends. 

Education  from  environment  and  folk-lore. —  Aside  from 
this  training  in  the  three  lines  indicated  there  was  always  that 
spontaneous  education  coming  from  impressive  Roman  life  and 
environment,  as  well  as  that  coming  from  the  folk-lore  of  the 
people,  which,  though  differing  in  quality  and  perhaps  in 
amount  from  the  body  of  folk-lore  in  Greece,  yet  formed  a 
substantial  body  of  educational  material  that  became  a  posses- 
sion of  the  trained  Roman. 

Results. —  The  elementary  years  gave  the  child  posses- 
sion of  simple  forms  and  the  means  for  practical  communica- 
tion with  his  fellows, —  all  that  was  necessary  for  the  early 
Roman  state.  As  there  was  little  literature, —  nothing  beyond 
the  Laws  and  some  indigenous  forms  of  literature  of  a  rudi- 
mentary type, —  little  was  needed  in  the  way  of  linguistics. 
Elementary  training  in  reading  and  writing  for  practical  pur- 
poses of  business  or  simple  records  (inscriptions,  etc.),  and 
enough  arithmetic  'for  simple  operations,  with  such  proficiency 
as  came  from  imitation  and  practice  in  common  life,  were 
enough.  A  study  of  science  in  these  early  times  was  unneces- 
sary. The  Roman's  practical  sense  gained  through  practical 
observation  gave  all  that  was  required.  The  principle  of 
apprenticeship  would  fulfil  the  demands  in  this  direction. 

Secondary  education  —  initiation. —  Formal  training  was 
the  work  of  primary  education.  Something  different  was  pro- 
vided for  the  adolescent.  It  is  true  that  he  probably  took 
pleasure  in  the  old  folk-lore,  which  appealed  to  him  in  new 
ways,  but  his  principal  business  was  to  master  the  institutions 


106  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  his  country  and  round  out  his  training  for  military  service. 
In  short,  his  was  a  special  training  in  the  most  essential  features 
of  citizenship  attendant  on,  or  supplementary  to,  his  initiation 
into  the  citizen  body,  the  most  significant  ceremony  in  his  life. 
At  the  end  of  his  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year,  on  a  festal  occasion 
called  the  Liberalia,  which  occurred  on  March  16th,  "  the  con- 
clusion of  boyhood  was  commemorated,  as  among  the  Greeks," 
by  special  forms.  The  insignia  pueritice  and  the  bulla  were 
dedicated  with  a  sacrifice  to  the  Lares  at  the  domestic  hearth. 
The  toga  prcetexta  of  boyhood  was  exchanged  for  the  toga 
virilis  (or  pura  or  libera)  with  a  ceremony  at  the  home  and 
a  second  one  in  the  Forum.  It  was  not  till  the  toga  virilis  was 
taken  that  the  name  (given  on  the  ninth  day  after  birth)  was 
confirmed, —  another  indication  that  full  manhood  was  reached. 
The  occasion  was  also  distinguished  by  a  special  tunic  called 
recta.  After  the  home  ceremonies  the  boy  was  escorted  to  the 
Forum,  the  center  of  the  Roman  state  and  of  Roman  politics. 
The  company  then  proceeded  to  the  Capitol  to  offer  sacri- 
fice.15 

Year  of  probation,  and  final  stage  of  education. —  Now 
began  the  boy's  tirocinium  or  novitiate,  the  introductory  stage 
of  his  public  life.16  "  There  was  a  year  of  transition  or  proba- 
tion during  which  the  behavior  of  the  adolescent  was  care- 
fully noted."  In  ancient  times  at  least,  the  coluber  e 
brachium  and  exercises  in  the  Campus  Martius  were  pre- 
scribed for  him,17  and  to  this  we  must  add,  it  would  seem,  more 
extended  physical  exercise  or  drill,  on  this  same  field,  that 
was  naturally  attractive  to  the  adolescent. 

Following  a  model. —  But  the  youth  must  have  more  than 
physical  training;  there  was  a  life  in  the  city  as  well  as  a 
life  in  the  field.  During  the  introductory  period  he  "  fre- 
quented the  tribunals  in  the  Forum ;  .  .  .  He  was  often  under 
the  guidance  and  direction  of  some  striking  personality,  selected 
by  his  father,  to  whom  he  attached  himself,"  following,  ob- 
serving, imitating.     Under  these  conditions  he  gained  a  very 

15  See  Appian,  B.C.,  IV:  20. 

16  "  Cotta  eo  ipso  die  quo  togam  sumpsit  virilem  protenus  ut  e  Capi- 
tolio  descendit  C.  Carbonem,  a  quo  pater  eius  damnatus  fuerat,  postu- 
lavit." — Val.  Max.,  V,  4:4;  Suetonius,  Claud.,  2. 

17  Cicero,  Cael.,  5. 


ROME  — EARLY  PERIOD  107 

practical  acquaintance  with  the  vital  elements  of  public  life.18 
In  very  early  times  the  ceremonies  were  perhaps  of  a  simpler 
character  and  the  father  was  probably  oftener  himself  the  at- 
tendant and  director  in  public  life.  One  cannot  help  admiring 
this  personal  solicitude  for  the  pupil  and  the  careful  indi- 
vidual work  done  for  him.  The  contrast  with  "  mass  "  work 
is  striking.19 

Results. —  Considering  Roman  intensity  and  self-con- 
sciousness it  must  be  confessed  that  the  boy,  on  entering  pub- 
lic life  at  eighteen  or  nineteen,  had  a  pretty  definite  training 
fitting  him  for  Roman  citizenship,  and  that  it  was  attained  by  a 
method  that  appealed  to  the  adolescent.  There  was  little  for- 
mal discipline,  but  there  was  much  concrete  training  touching 
the  intellectual,  ethical,  and  physical  sides  of  life.  Suggestive 
ideals  were  impressed  through  models  from  Roman  history, 
past  and  current,  that  were  persistently  held  before  the  view, 
thus  enforcing  character  and  guiding  to  political  efficiency.  At 
the  same  time  it  should  be  noted  that  this  represents  the  fully 
developed  education  of  the  early  period.  Back  of  it  was,  of 
course,  the  still  simpler  education  typified  by  the  schemes  in 
Chapters  I  and  II. 

Summary. —  A  summary  in  graphic  form,  as  in  previous 
chapters,  will  enable  us  to  bring  the  facts  together  and  to  make 
some  comparisons. 

18 "  The  youth  who  was  intended  for  public  declamation  was  in- 
troduced by  his  father  or  some  near  relation,  with  all  the  advantage 
of  home  discipline  and  a  mind  furnished  with  useful  knowledge,  to 
the  most  eminent  orator  of  the  time,  whom  henceforth  he  attended  on 
all  occasions.  He  listened  with  attention  to  his  patron's  pleadings  in 
the  tribunals  of  justice  and  his  public  harangues  before  the  people. 
He  heard  him  in  the  warmth  of  argument,  he  noted  his  sudden  re- 
plies, and  thus  on  the  field  of  battle,  if  I  may  so  express  myself,  he 
learned  the  first  rudiments  of  rhetorical  warfare."  See  Tacitus,  Or. ; 
Monroe,  op.  cit.,  368;  Becker's  Gallus,  198.     See  also  Quintilian. 

The  quotation  perhaps  contains  some  late  details,  but  it  illustrates 
the  general  practice.  The  references  generally  are  from  late  authors, 
but  the  customs  referred  to  were,  in  their  fundamental  ideas,  un- 
questionably old. 

19  In  addition  to  other  sources  the  standard  Classical  Dictionaries 
have  been  used.    They  furnish  various  primary  references. 


io8 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Aim. —  To  train  in  a  practical  way  a  true  Roman  member  of  the 
family  and  the  state  (civic  and  military). —  A  strong,  moral,  pa- 
triotic, and  (under  the  limitations  of  state  supremacy)  independent 
man. 

Curriculum  and  Method. 


Secondary 

Boy  assumes  toga  virilis  at  16 
with  special  ceremonies  (re- 
ligious, etc.).  Is  enrolled. 
Training  in  public  and  private 
life.  Continues  learning  of 
rudimentary  literature,  etc. 
(See  elementary  course.) 


Elementary  (Girls  and  Boys) 

Language :  —  ( i )  Familiarity 
with  folk-lore.  (2)  Reading 
(practical  not  esthetic).  Ma- 
terial :  —  songs,  hymns,  hero- 
tales,  XII  Tables,20  rudimen- 
tary Latin  literature.  (3) 
Writing. 

Number, —  simple  calculation. 

Mastery  of  form,  spirit  and  spe- 
cial characteristics  of  com- 
munity life. 

Games. 

All  education  profoundly  re- 
ligious. 

Early  course  advocated  by  Cato 
(a  typical  Roman)  :  reading, 
writing,  Roman  law,  physical 
exercises  (walking,  riding, 
swimming,  boxing). 

Method :  —  Companionship,  ob- 
servation, observance  (imita- 
tion and  practice). 

Formal  studies  :  —  Reading, — 
synthetic  method ;  ( 1 )  name 
and  order  of  letters;  (2)  form 
and  use.  Attention  to  expres- 
sion.    Memory  work. 

Writing  synthetic  plan, —  imita- 
tion,  tracing,   etc. 

Morals, —  precept,  suggestion 
through  literature,  etc.,  emu- 
lation. 

Education  domestic.  Mother 
prominent. 

20  These  laws  are  found  in  Wordsworth's  "  Fragments  and  Speci- 
mens of  Early  Latin."  Oxford,  1874,  and  (in  part)  in  Allen's  "  Rem- 
nants of  Early  Latin,"  Boston,  1880,  and  (in  translation)  in  Monroe's 
"  Source-Book." 

They  show  advanced  political  and  social  organization,  but  a  rather 
simple  industrial  development.    Ideas  of  justice  are  high. 


Chants  national  songs. 

Gymnastic  exercises  in  C.  M. 
for  military  purposes. —  Prac- 
tical end,  as  opposed  to  the 
larger  idea  of  Greeks,  who  in- 
cluded an  esthetic  purpose. 


Method  :  —  Companionship  of 
father  in  Forum,  streets,  etc. 

In  later  times  was  added  com- 
panionship of  model  man 
chosen  by  father. 

Observation  and  practice. 

Carriage  watched. 


ROME  — EARLY  PERIOD  109 

One  section  deals  with  the  patria  potestas,  showing  the  extensive 
power  of  the  father.  The  son  could  not  be  free  from  the  father  till 
three  sales  and  emancipations  had  been  consummated.  Family  organ- 
ization was  excessively  strong. 

"  Three  successive  sales  of  the  son  by  the  father  release  the  former 
from  the  patria  potestas."    Tab.  IV. 

One  passage  deals  with  wrongs  inflicted  by  a  tutor  on  his  pupillus. 
Two  passages  place  those  above  and  those  below  puberty  on  a  different 
footing. 

He  who  during  the  night  furtively  either  cuts  or  depastures  his  neigh- 
bor's crops,  if  of  the  age  of  puberty,  shall  be  devoted  to  Ceres  and  put 
to  death ;  if  under  that  age,  he  shall  be  scourged  at  the  discretion  of 
the  magistrate  and  condemned  in  penalty  of  double  the  damage  done. 
Tab.  VIII. 

A  thief  taken  in  the  act,  if  a  freeman,  shall  be  scourged  and  made 
over  by  addictio  to  the  person  robbed,  but  those  under  the  age  of 
puberty  shall,  at  the  discretion  of  the  magistrate,  be  scourged  and  con- 
demned to  repair  the  damage.    Tab.  VIII. 


VIII 

SECONDARY   EDUCATION    IN   ROME  —  LATER   PERIOD 

Changes  in  the  later  period. —  In  the  second  period  of 
Roman  education  Rome  underwent  changes  similar  to  those 
we  have  traced  in  Greece,  similar,  but  not  the  same,  for  there 
was  a  difference  in  stock  and  in  circumstances. 

Rome  came  into  ever-widening  contact  with  other  peoples 
and  conditions.  It  was  not  the  contact  of  a  cosmopolitan 
people  nor  of  a  great  commercial  people  with  reciprocal  influ- 
ences, cultural  and  practical,  but  first  of  all  a  contact  of  domi- 
nation and  Romanization.  Every  new  state  Rome  touched  — 
and  touching  was  to  gain  —  she  at  once  organized  as  a  part  of 
her  great  imperial  system  that  was  developed  long  before  the 
Empire  came.  She  at  once  started  the  machinery  for  govern- 
ing and  assimilating.  Hence  the  effect  was  more  political  than 
cultural.  Yet  the  cultural  was  bound  to  be  an  element  in  the 
new  acquisitions,  for  the  larger  part  of  the  territory  into  which 
Rome  penetrated  in  her  early  expansion  was  charged  with  it. 
However  slight  an  impression  it  made  at  first  on  the  new  mili- 
tary power  in  the  West,  the  spirit  of  culture  is  always  tenacious 
of  life  and  is  sure  to  grow  even  on  inhospitable  soil.  But 
Roman  soil  was  far  from  being  inhospitable.  On  the  contrary 
it  was  distinctly  favorable,  though  it  would  never  produce  the 
same  quality  of  culture  as  Greece.  This,  however,  was  neither 
necessary  nor  desirable. 

Thus  Roman  ideas  were  broadening  generally,  in  cultural  as 
well  as  in  political  and  practical  lines.  Mere  living  in  the 
midst  of  such  a  thoroughly  organized  system,  involving  widely 
separated  and  divergent  peoples  and  states  welded  by  master- 
ful Roman  ideas,  gave  a  broader  education.  Much  more  did 
it  require  a  broader  and  more  technical  education  to  partici- 
pate in  it. 

As  far  as  education  was  concerned  the  greatest  influence  in 
this  world-wide  contact  came  from  Greece,  first  from  Italian 

no 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  in 

Greece,  which  was  early  incorporated  with  Rome,  then,  intensi- 
fied and  enlarged,  from  Old  Greece  itself.  Hence  came  lit- 
erary ideals  and  culture  ideas  that  were  at  first  reluctantly,1 
and  then  eagerly,  absorbed. 

Changes  therefore  came  from  the  growth  and  expansion  of 
Rome  and  from  the  stimulus  of  other  culture  nations.  But 
it  should  be  remembered  that  greater  and  more  vital  changes 
came  from  the  natural  development  of  indigenous  Roman 
qualities  such  as  we  have  referred  to  more  than  once.  From 
the  combined  influences  at  home  and  abroad  came  the  follow- 
ing significant  results  that  should  be  noticed,  if  we  are  to 
understand  the  changes  in  education  now  taking  place :  — 

i.  Democracy. —  There  was  a  notable  growth  in  Roman 
democracy  with  its  intricate  system  of  assemblies,  giving  play 
to  the  political  energies  of  all  the  people.  This  growth  fol- 
lowed the  exigencies  of  the  moment  rather  than  any  logically 
arranged  plan,  just  as  the  English  constitution  has  grown. 
Every  movement  therefore  was  an  educational  episode.  Be- 
yond this  was  the  organization  of  the  provincial  government, 
which  was  systematic  and  logical,  made  by  trained  minds,  and 
occupying  them  in  its  execution. 

2.  System  of  law. —  In  connection  with  local  and  provin- 
cial government  Rome  had  developed  a  system  of  law,  with 
its  machinery,  that  made  a  model  for  the  world.  It  was  with- 
out precedent,  a  genuine  Roman  product,  a  natural  outgrowth 
of  her  organizing  power.  Trained  minds  made  it.  It 
required  trained  minds  to  man  it. 

3.  Language  and  literature. —  There  was  a  wonderful 
growth  of  language  and  literature.  First,  indigenous  Roman 
literature  made  considerable  progress  before  more  finished 
Greek  models  supplanted  it.  The  latter,  however,  quickly  gave 
a  form  and  spirit  that  native  genius  alone  would  probably 
never  have  given,  because  the  Roman  bent  was  not  that  way. 
A  wealth  of  literature  was  thus  quickly  at  command.  It  was 
a  great  educational  force  and  at  the  same  time  served  as  a  con- 
spicuous aim  in  education.  Some  of  it  was  borrowed  out- 
right, some  of  it  was  produced  through  imitation,  an  imitation 
however   into    which    Roman   genius    and    personality    were 

1  See  page  116. 


ii2  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

injected.  A  nation  may  advance  more,  and  more  quickly 
secure  rich  educational  material,  through  such  imitation  than 
through  unaided  effort,  if  it  is  fortunate  in  its  models,  and 
Rome  was  fortunate. 

4.  Practical  arts. —  Great  strides  were  made  in  practical 
arts  and  the  sciences  on  which  they  were  founded.  Rome's 
public  works  still  excite  admiration.  Such  accomplishments 
would  give  greater  emphasis  to  practical  studies  than  was 
found  in  Greece. 

5.  Roman  art  had  a  marked  development.  Though  she 
added  some  conspicuous  features  to  architecture,  her  art  was 
generally  copy.  But  it  was  good  copy  from  good  teachers  and 
afforded  still  further  culture  material. 

6.  Individual  development. —  With  it  all,  the  period  de- 
veloped an  individualism  comparable  with  that  of  Greece,  but 
somewhat  more  stable,  because  not  unanchored.  The  state 
was  a  stronger  influence  in  Rome  than  in  Greece.  Men  could 
not  so  easily  set  it  aside.  But  Roman  individualism  was  nar- 
rower than  the  Grecian;  the  latter  was  both  intellectual  and 
utilitarian,  with  emphasis  on  the  intellectual;  the  other  was 
primarily  practical.  In  each  case  it  gave  more  freedom  in 
education  and  accelerated  progress. 

We  may  divide  the  most  characteristic  changes  into  two 
groups,  1,  changes  in  Roman  thought,  feelings,  and  activities, 
due  to  Greek  influence ;  2,  changes  due  to  the  natural  expansion 
and  growth  of  Rome  herself  and  all  that  Rome  stood  for. 
There  was  something  distinctly  Roman,  a  kind  of  Roman 
genius,  that  remained  and  gave  character  to  everything. 
Nowhere  is  this  more  evident  than  in  education. 

Comparison  of  early  and  late  conditions  in  Rome. —  The 
main  changes  in  the  second  period  of  Roman  education  as  com- 
pared with  the  first  may  be  seen  graphically  and  a  little  more  in 
detail  by  reference  to  the  following  table  of  comparisons  as  to 
civic  and  social  ideas  in  the  two  periods  into  which  we  have 
divided  Roman  history  for  our  present  purpose. 

Early  Period  Late  Period 

I.  State,     small,     compact, —  at      1.  Rome    imperial    in    size   and 
most  confined  to  Italy.  power,  though  not  in  gov- 

ernment till  the  end  of  the  pe- 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD 


ii3 


Attention  engrossed  by  class 
contests  within,  settlement 
of  the  scheme  of  govern- 
ment, contests  with  sur- 
rounding peoples.  Objects 
of  effort  therefore  were  in- 
ternal life  and  Italian  su- 
premacy, not  culture.  Ed- 
ucation simple,  practical. 


3.  Thought  simple,  direct,  mat- 
ter-of-fact. 


4.  Art  simple,  practical;  reli- 
gious architecture,  city 
walls,  etc. 


Language  and  literature  un- 
developed ;  folk-lore, —  f  ab- 
ulae  Atellanae,  mimus,  sat- 
urae.  Only  rudiments  of 
literature,  but  indigenous. 
Of  rude  scenic  nature  for 
most  part. 

Individual  devoted  to  state. 
This  is  the  fundamental  idea 
of  life.     Intense  civic  life. 

Ideal. —  Preparation  for  state 
service. 


riod.  Relations  more  com- 
plex. Wider  contact  with 
other  civilizations  (Greek). 

2.  New  interests  and  new  ideas 

come  to  view. 

Old- Roman  character  (see 
above)  so  strongly  rooted 
that  new  culture  forces  its 
way  slowly  and  takes  on  a 
distinctly  Roman  type. 
Colored  by  Roman  traits. 

Civilization  wider,  more  com- 
plex. Education  practical. 
Broader,  more  complex 
than  before. 

3.  Thought    simple    and    direct, 

but  operates  in  a  wider  field. 
Concerned  with  wider 
knowledge.  Greek  civiliza- 
tion influences. 

4.  Art  has  grown  under  Greek 

stimulus  and  in  part  through 
Greek  artists.  Period  of 
civic  and  private  esthetics. 
Real  Roman  art  practical, 
substantial,  dignified. 

5.  Language  developed   for  lit- 

erary purposes.  A  new  lit- 
erature ;  translations,  imi- 
,  tations,  original  productions 
grow  rapidly.  Some  genu- 
ine esthetic  feeling  in  litera- 
ture. 

6.  Individual   devoted   to   state, 

but  less  strenuously  in  later 
years. 

7.  Ideal. —  The  orator. 


A  Roman  ideal. —  Under  these  conditions  the  ruling  ideal 
is  not  far  to  seek.  More  than  in  Greece  the  power  of  words 
was  the  key  to  influence  and  preferment.  From  the  time  of 
the  irrepressible  conflict,  when  the  Plebs  burst  into  the  old 
exclusive  organization  of  the  Patricians,2  skill  in  debate  became 
increasingly  prominent  and  increasingly  exacting.     The  hust- 

2  De  Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  252,  258,  307,  360. 


H4  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

ings,  advocacy  of  measures  in  the  various  assemblies,  the 
lawyer's  profession,  success  in  provincial  government,  all 
suggested  and  demanded  it.3  Rome  was  full  of  action  and 
expression.  The  quiet  ideals  of  the  scholar  were  not  for  her. 
Romans  became  statesmen  of  a  practical  type,  and  became  as 
naturally  orators.  Public  speaking  as  a  leading  object  of 
effort  was  emphasized  by  the  very  concentration  of  Rome's 
interests.  Thought  would  be  focused  on  this  object  more 
fully  in  a  purely  martial  and  political  republic  than  in  a  many- 
sided  democracy  that  supplied  more  means  of  influence. 

Requirements  for  meeting  the  new  aim. —  However  it  may 
be  explained,  men's  thoughts  fastened  on  the  orator  as  an  ideal, 
beyond  anything  seen  before.  As  in  Greece,  so  in  Rome,  the 
scope  of  his  position  grew  to  be  so  large  and  the  needed  equip- 
ment so  broad  and  detailed  that  an  elaborate  and  thorough 
course  of  training  was  required, —  for  the  technique  of  his 
profession  to  give  his  speech  form,  for  general  culture  and 
information  to  give  it  substance,  and  for  mental  training  to 
give  it  effect.  So  the  orator  in  his  studies  must  cover  the 
whole  range  of  human  knowledge.  The  old  natural  training 
of  early  Rome,  all-sufficient  then,  was  no  longer  enough. 
Language  power  had  become  a  fine  art.  It  required  a  more 
thorough  training  than  in  Greece,  for  public  speaking  had  evi- 
dently become  a  more  exacting  profession.  It  was  likely  to  be 
more  thorough,  because  thoroughness  was  a  native  character- 
istic of  the  Romans,  while  brilliance  characterized  the  Greeks. 
The  calling  of  the  lawyer  emphasized  qualifications  similar  to 
those  of  the  orator  and  thus  required  a  similar  course  of  train- 
ing.    In  fact  the  two  callings  became  identical  in  preparation. 

Influence  of  the  art  of  authorship. —  With  the  growth  in 
language  and  literature,  literary  culture  and  the  art  of  author- 
ship also  demanded  an  advance  in  training  to  meet  the  higher 
requirements.  The  orator's  education,  from  the  very  nature 
of  Rome's  broad  conception  of  her  ideal,  admirably  met  these 
demands  of  literature,  for  it  involved  a  very  definite  study  of 
literary  ideals  and  broad  and  intense  work  in  composition. 

Need  of  a  new  school. —  Everything  points  therefore  to 
the  need  of  a  new  school,  new  studies,  and  new  methods,  to 

3  Appendix  2;  Cicero,  Murena,  14;  Tactitus,  Or.,  36, 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  115 

supply  the  rather  formidable  requirements  of  the  times.  A 
well  defined  elementary  school  had  been  established  in  the 
early  epoch.  In  the  period  under  review  it  was  somewhat 
modified  by  the  new  spirit  that  was  strongly  influencing  educa- 
tion. What  was  needed,  both  from  the  logic  of  growth  and 
from  the  demands  of  the  "  orator,"  was  a  well  equipped  sec- 
ondary school.  The  secondary  age  was  just  the  one  to  be 
inspired  by  the  orator-ideal  and  get  a  good  grasp  of  it. 

A  model  at  hand. —  Greece  had  already  developed  the 
more  detailed  and  technical  curriculum  needed  to  meet  the 
new  conditions  in  Rome.  It  was  found  in  her  grammar  and 
rhetorical  schools.4  With  other  Greek  contributions,  wel- 
comed and  absorbed  by  the  new  Western  culture,  these  schools 
would  naturally  come  to  Rome.  The  Romans  themselves  had 
the  ability  to  invent  the  needed  school  under  the  pressing 
stimulus  of  the  times.  But  they  had  a  model  at  hand  that  only 
needed  developing  and  adjusting  to  meet  Roman  thought  and 
conditions.  Rome  was  able  to  give  system  and  organization  to 
the  training  of  the  orator.  It  is  hard  to  tell  which  is  most 
responsible  for  the  new  school,  Greek  models  or  Roman 
character. 

In  thinking  of  this  advance  in  school  training  we  are  attend- 
ing merely  to  the  practical  demands  of  the  situation.  We 
must  not  forget,  however,  that  education  has  inherent  power 
of  growth  for  its  own  sake,  and  that,  with  the  general  growth 
of  a  people  many  push  on  in  education  without  regard  to  the 
practical. 

Character  of  the  secondary  school. —  From  the  emphasis 
on  language  power  the  secondary  school  quite  naturally  was  a 
grammar  school.  Its  name  and  curriculum  were  perpetuated 
in  the  grammar  school  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  name  still 
survives  in  the  great  Grammar  Schools,  or  Public  Schools,  of 
England.  This  school  developed  gradually  from  small  begin- 
nings in  the  third  century  B.  C.  to  the  fully  organized  gram- 
mar school  of  the  first  century.5 

Beyond  this  school  was  the  Rhetor  School  that  was  partly 

4  See  Chapter  V. 

5  Appendix  1  ;  Becker,  Gallus,  191-2.  This  was  for  boys  only,  though 
the  education  of  women  had  advocates  even  in  those  times. 


u6  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

secondary.  The  lines  of  separation  between  the  two  schools 
were  not  always,  if  ever,  hard  and  fast  ones.  There  was  fre- 
quent overlapping,  one  school  taking  some  of  the  matter  and 
functions  of  the  other.6 

Opposition. —  The  new  education,  particularly  the  art  of 
rhetoric,  naturally  had  its  critics  and  opponents.  The  criticism 
was  often  just,  for  the  laxer  morals  and  looser  methods  of  the 
schools,  the  apparently  superficial  work  of  the  teachers  of  the 
speaking  art,  and  the  shading  of  the  old  practical  civic  ideal 
naturally  excited  strong  prejudice  in  the  sober,  practical  minds 
of  the  Romans.  Opposition  went  so  far  sometimes  that  it 
resulted  in  state  prohibition.  But  the  new  came  in  to  meet  a 
definite  need.  While  details  may  have  been  bad,  its  main  pur- 
pose was  a  logical  and  wholesome  one.  It  quickly  became 
popular  and  secured  permanent  standing,7  and  at  its  best  could 
claim  as  much  dignity  and  moral  stamina  as  the  older  forms 
and  processes.  The  old  civic  ideal  and  the  old  morale  had  not 
vanished.  They  still  had  influence  enough  to  steady  new 
forms. 

Core  of  the  curriculum. —  The  core  of  the  Grammar  School 
curriculum  was  linguistics,  both  Latin  and  Greek.8  Rome  was 
the  first  nation  to  make  a  formal  study  of  a  foreign  language 
a  conspicuous  part  of  school  life.  Very  early,  not  far  from 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,9  a  knowledge  of  Greek 
was  a  convenience,  if  not  a  necessity. 

Greek  the  leading  language  at  first. —  At  first  Greek  was 
probably  studied  privately  by  certain  people ;  the  grammar 
school  was  not  yet  developed  or  was  in  its  infancy.     But  by 

6  Quintilian,  Inst.  Orat,  II :  i ;  Suetonius,  Lives  of  Gram.  (Monroe 
op.  cit.,  351-2.)  . 

7  Quintilian,  Inst.  Orat.,  II,  1 :  1 ;  Suetonius,  op.  at.,  (Monroe,  Source 
Book,  352-3). 

Ancient  discipline  in  the  broad  sense  had  become  demoralized.  Boys 
ruled.  There  was  inattention  on  the  part  of  those  who  pretended  to 
give  instruction.  "  The  mischief  began  at  Rome,  and  has  overrun  all 
Italy."  See  Tactitus,  Or.,  28,  31-2,  35  (Monroe,  op.  cit.,  360  ft.); 
Plautus,  Baa,  III :  3. 

For  other  criticism  see  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  II:  10;  Juvenal,  Sat,  VII, 
XIV  (Monroe,  op.  cit,  416  ff.). 

8  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I.  It  was  significantly  called  literatura,  thus 
showing  something  of  its  scope,  Do.,  II,  1 : 4. 

9  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  344. 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  117 

the  second  century,  or  earlier,  it  was  a  commanding  part  of 
the  school  program,  coming  in  perhaps  with  Greek  grammar- 
ians.10 At  first  Greek  was  the  only  language  taught  in  the 
grammar  schools,11  probably  because  the  early  grammatici,  or 
at  least  the  best  of  them,  were  Greeks.  Cicero  (Brutus,  90) 
says, 

"  I  constantly  declaimed  in  private  with  Marcus  Piso,  Quintus 
Pompeius,  or  some  other  of  my  acquaintances,  pretty  often  in 
Latin,  but  much  oftener  in  Greek,  because  the  Greek  furnishes  a 
greater  variety  of  ornaments  and  an  opportunity  for  imitating 
and  introducing  them  into  Latin;  and  because  the  Greek  masters, 
who  were  by  far  the  best,  could  not  direct  and  improve  us  unless 
we  declaimed  in  that  language." 

But  in  time  Latin  came  to  take  the  precedence.  In  fact  Latin 
rapidly  developed  as  a  literary  and  oratorical  language  with 
high  possibilities. 

Favorite  authors. —  The  Latin  authors  most  read  at  first 
were  those  of  the  golden  age,  Vergil,  Horace  and  Lucan;  but 
later,  about  the  time  of  Quintilian's  death,  came  a  change  that 
brought  into  favor  old  masters  of  prose  and  verse, —  Gracchus, 
Nsevius,  Plautus  and  others.12 

Studies. —  The  curriculum  thus  included  first  of  all  lan- 
guage. It  was  studied  intensively,  and  included  orthography, 
grammar  (with  little  syntax),  pronunciation,  literary  style  and 
content,  artistic  reading,  declamation,  composition,  literature, 
in  many  schools  elementary  rhetoric  and  delivery,13  and  even 
music,  which  was  thought  to  have  special  power  to  give  quality 
to  oral  and  written  language.  The  curriculum  included  also 
geography  and  astronomy,  which  won  favor  both  as  informa- 
tional and  as  practical  subjects ;  geometry,  which  was  taken 
up  for  its  disciplinary  value  and  its  utility  in  common  life ; 14 
arithmetic,  of  a  practical  nature;  and  history.     Of  these  sub- 

10  Do.,  359;  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I. 

11  Harper's  Die.  of  Clas.  Antiq.,  sub.  voc,  education. 

12  Smith's  Die.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiq,  sub  voc.,  Ludus  Literarius. 

13  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I,  4-11,  (study  of  literature,  I,  8;  composition 
I,  9;  Rhetoric,  II,  1). 

14  "  In  summo  apud  eos  honore  geometria  f  uit ;  itaque  nihil  mathe- 
maticis  inlustrius.  At  nos  metiendi,  ratiocinandi  utilitate  huius  artis 
terminavumus  modum," —  Cicero,  Tusc,  I,  2,  5. 


u8  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

jects  astronomy,  geography,  and  history  15  seem  to  have  been 
correlated  subjects,  being  taken  up  in  connection  with  lan- 
guage study.  The  language  subjects  were  thus  the  ones  that 
were  developed  with  the  greatest  care  and  system.  Other 
subjects  were  subordinate  and  often  of  a  very  elementary 
character.  Science,  including  geography,  was  probably  quite 
primitive,  though  the  latter  subject  with  its  appliances  would 
doubtless  compare  favorably  with  its  counterpart  in  compara- 
tively modern  curricula.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  the 
Roman  attitude  toward  subjects  was  in  strong  contrast  with 
the  typical  attitude  of  the  Greeks  who  had  more  of  the  ideal  in 
their  dealings  with  them.16 

Physical  training. —  But  there  was  another  side  to  the 
curriculum, —  physical  training,  which,  though  relatively  more 
important  in  early  Rome,  held  an  important  place  in  the  adoles- 
cent's training  at  this  time.  It  was  even  regarded  as  a  useful 
and  necessary  part  of  the  orator's  training.  Physical  form 
and  grace  of  manner  and  carriage  had  their  force  in  com- 
mending him  to  hearers.17  Beauty  was  a  means,  not  an  end 
as  in  Greece.  Hence  we  now  find  schools  of  exercise  in  addi- 
tion to  the  regular  Campus  Martius  exercises  referred  to 
before,  and  they  seem  to  have  something  of  the  Greek  idea 
in  their  conduct.17 

Moral  training. —  Ethical  training  continued  to  receive  at- 
tention. Roman  educators,  true  to  the  old  Roman  feeling, 
still  made  the  subject  one  of  absorbing  interest  in  the  cur- 
riculum. But  the  evidence  tends  to  show  that  the  old  Roman 
ideal  had  been  weakened  here  as  in  other  matters.18  Such 
schoolmasters  as  Quintilian,  however,  more  than  revived  the 
older  thought, —  they  revived  and  systematized  it,  so  that 
moral  values  were  constantly  considered  in  making  out  the 
pupil's  course  of  training.19 

15  History  occupied  a  larger  and  more  important  place  than  the 
others. 

16  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  357  ff. ;  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  passim;  Cicero,  Brutus, 

91,  93-  . 

17  "  Nobis  quidem  olim  annus  erat  ad  cohibendum  brachium  toga  con- 
stitutes et  ut  exercitatione  ludoque  campestri  tunicati  uteretur,"  Cicero, 
Cael.,  5. 

18  Plautus,  Bac.  Ill,  3;  Tacitus,  Or.  28,  (Monroe,  op.  cit.,  360  ff.). 

19  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  1 :  11. 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  119 

Teachers. —  The  designations  of  teachers  who  were  in 
charge  of  Roman  schools  were  significant, —  grammatici  and 
rhetores.  In  Greece  both  would  have  come  under  the  general 
class  of  sophists.  Rhetores  were  termed  sophists  at  Rome. 
Teachers  came  to  be  held  in  high  honor,  for  the  practical 
Roman  ideal  of  the  period  gave  them  a  place  that  few  teachers 
have  occupied.  They  were  in  reality  the  center  of  the  Roman 
political  development.  Quintilian's  finest  passages  lay  great 
stress  on  the  fundamental  duty  of  choosing  teachers  with  great 
discrimination,  especially  for  early  work.20 

Method  in  language  elaborate. —  The  typical  method 
was  a  formal  one  as  far  as  language  proper  was  concerned. 
It  included  dictation  exercises,21  reproduction,  grammatical 
drill,  paraphrasing,  translation,22  a  critical  study  of  the  lan- 
guage and  literary  qualities  of  poets,  the  exegesis  of  the  poets, 
and  memory  work.  But,  in  general,  mastery  of  rules,  imita- 
tion, including  a  careful  study  of  literary  models,  and  abundant 
practice  were  the  characteristic  features  of  method.  Clarke  23 
describes  a  combination  reading,  language  and  literature  lesson 
as  follows : 24 

Language  and  literature. — "  Before  the  pupil  read  his  lesson 
the  teacher  probably  first  read  it  over  for  him  (praelegere),  in 
order  to  show  him  how  he  wished  it  to  be  done.  Then  he  made 
the  sense  of  the  passage  clear,  knowing  that  the  first  requisite 
of  good  reading  is  a  thorough  understanding.  Difficult  words 
and  historical  and  mythological  allusions  were  explained,  and 
attention  was  called  to  poetical  licenses,  foreign  words,  figures 
of  speech,  unusual  turns  of  expression,  and  the  varying  senses  of 
the  words  according  to  their  context.  Occasion  was  taken  to 
impress  on  the  pupil's  mind  the  importance  of  orderly  arrange- 
ment, and  of  the  suitable  treatment  of  different  subjects  and 
characters,  to  point  out  beauties  of  sentiment  and  diction,  and  to 
explain  how  in  one  place  diffuseness,  in  another  brevity,  is  de- 
sirable.    To   insure   his  perfect  understanding  of  a  passage   the 

20 Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I:  1;  II:  2-3. 

21  Cicero,  Q.  R,  III,  1:4;  Horace,  Epist.  II,  1:690".;  Laurie,  op.  cit., 
368  ff.  These  dictation  exercises  were  useful  also  in  performing  part 
of  the  function  of  text  books  in  the  early  days,  when  books  were 
scarce. 

22  Pliny,  Epist.  VII,  9;  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  413  ff. 
™  Clarke,  op.  cit.,  ii2ff. 

2*  Cicero,  Brutus,  89,  91 ;  Appendix  to  Chap.  IX ;  see  also  reference 
22. 


120  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

pupil  was  required  to  give  a  prose  paraphrase  of  it,  and  to  ex- 
plain the  metrical  construction.  Moral  lessons  were  drawn  from 
the  words  of  the  poet,  and  it  was  explained  how  the  poet's  fancy 
might  make  use  of  fictitious  situations  and  characters  to  present 
valuable  truths."  25 

"  Thus  the  reading  lessons  from  the  poets  were  made  the  means 
of  instruction  in  many  different  subjects  —  practical  ethics,  gram- 
mar, composition,  elocution,  geography,  mythology,  and  history." 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  poetry  was  the  standard  literature 
for  the  Grammar  School ; 26  prose  was  relegated  to  the  Rhetor 
School.  Whether  intended  or  not,  poetry  did  not  ill-suit  the 
age  of  grammar,  i.  e.,  secondary,  school,  pupils,  though  selec- 
tions from  prose  literature  were  also  desirable  and  essential. 

So  much  for  methods  in  language  work.  The  main  fea- 
tures and  principles  have  been  given  here.  Much  interesting 
matter  as  to  details  will  be  found  in  the  following  chapter  and 
its  appendix,  where  they  can  be  more  appropriately  taken  up. 

Rhetoric. —  In  rhetoric  there  was  concrete  work  in  con- 
nection with  literature,  if  we  may  infer  that  Ouintilian's 
description  of  method  represents  the  general  practice.27  There 
were  also  text-books  and  schemes  ("topics")  to  guide  pupils 
in  developing  themes  or  f  orensics.  An  illustration  of  the  latter 
is  given  in  the  appendix.28 

Geography  and  history. —  Some  hint  of  method  in  geog- 
raphy and  history  has  already  been  given  in  saying  that  they 
were  correlated  subjects.  History  came  through  the  reading 
of  Roman  and  Greek  historians,  through  following  allusions 
in  language  work,  and  through  the  idealization  of  Roman 
heroes.  In  all  this  the  Roman  boy  got  a  vivid  and  impressive 
idea  of  Roman  achievements  and  Roman  political  ideals,  and 
must  also  have  mastered  the  main  facts  of  Greek  history.  As 
to  geography  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  map  work  was  the 
conspicuous  means  of  teaching.  This  was  the  only  practical 
method. 

25  Such  a  minute  study  of  literature  at  the  adolescent  period  would 
have  killed  real  interest  in  it,  if  there  had  not  been  some  intense  ob- 
ject in  view,  making  even  such  martyrdom  tolerable.  _ 

20  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I,  8,  9;  H,  4,  5,  7  J  Smith's  Gr.  and  Rom.  Antiqs. 
See  Appendix  3. 

27  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I,  8;  II,  5- 

28  Appendix  5. 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  121 

Moral  instruction. —  The  method  of  moral  instruction  was 
the  most  concrete  of  all,  because  there  was  a  wealth  of  illus- 
trative material  here.  Training  was  given  impressively 
through  literature  and  history,  and  through  living  models  to 
whom  Roman  boys  were  attached  for  the  purpose  of  learning 
their  methods  of  public  speaking.29 

Group  teaching. —  As  to  organization  of  instruction,  there 
was  doubtless  the  ordinary  class  work,  but  it  is  very  interest- 
ing to  find  reference  to  group  teaching  for  the  sake  of  meet- 
ing individual  qualities  and  stimulating  emulation.  For  such 
purposes  group  teaching  offers  better  opportunities  than  class 
teaching.  It  is  still  more  interesting  to  find  a  number  of  refer- 
ences which  indicate  regard  for  the  individual  without  thought 
of  emulation.  They  show  that  early  secondary  schools  made 
the  adolescent  the  basis  of  their  work,  at  least  that  they  had 
a  sympathetic  regard  for  him.3Q  Quintilian's  description  of 
the  best  school  practices  throws  strong  emphasis  upon  indi- 
vidual work. 

The  new  school  a  prototype. —  There  has  thus  been  es- 
tablished,—  in  part  developed,  and  in  part  adopted  and 
adapted, —  a  formal  school  program  for  the  adolescent  in  place 
of  the  free  and  natural  training  of  the  early  period.  This  was 
the  Grammar  School.  It  was  presided  over  by  the  Gram- 
maticus,  the  Roman  grammar  master,  prototype  of  the  more 
modern  grammar  masters  in  the  secondary  schools  of  Europe,31 
particularly  of  England,  and  of  the  early  grammar  masters  of 
this  country,  in  our  earliest  secondary  schools.  This  Gram- 
mar School  became  at  the  end  of  the  first  century  a  well-organ- 
ized, a  well-systematized,  and  a  powerful  institution,  a  great 
moulding  force  in  the  Roman  world.  Practical  aims  were 
prominent  in  these  Roman  schools  at  their  best  period,  but  at 
the  same  time  cultural  ideas  and  opportunities  were  there  and 
had  no  inconsiderable  influence. 

The  typical  form. —  Schools  varied  in  scope  and  program. 

29  "  Long  is  the  path  through  moral  preaching ;  short  and  efficacious 
that  through  example."     Sen.,  Epist.  VI :  5. 

30  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I,  2 :  23.     See  also  Appendix  to  Chapter  IX. 
31 A  European  Grammar  School  takes  pupils  earlier  and  keeps  them 

longer  than  our  High  School,  so  that  comparisons  as  to  names,  ages, 
and  curricula  cannot  be  exact. 


122  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

They  probably  varied  in  method  and  spirit  as  well.32  The 
fundamental  branches  with  language  and  literature,  music  and 
geometry  are  said  to  have  formed  the  curriculum  for  the 
majority.  The  typical  school  however  was  the  Grammar 
School  whose  program  has  been  described  on  the  preceding 
pages.  It  was  the  center  and  determining  influence  of  the 
Roman  school  world,  the  distinctive  product  of  the  period. 
Variations  only  illustrate  the  type.33 

This  school  gave  the  preliminary  training  for  the  summum 
bonum  34  of  the  ambitious  Roman,  the  orator.  To  carry  out 
this  aim  in  full,  however,  regularly  required  additional  study 
and  training.  This  was  supplied  by  the  Rhetor  School 35  for 
which  the  Grammar  School  was  preparatory. 

The  Rhetor  School. —  The  Rhetor  School  continued  the 
work  in  composition,  elocution,  and  mnemonics,  making  it 
more  intensive.  It  developed  style  and  effectiveness  in  writing 
and  confidence  in  delivery  that  were  preparatory  to  entering 
the  Forum.36  It  evidently  included  at  least  two  years  of  sec- 
ondary work  corresponding  to  the  last  two  years  of  our  high 
school  curriculum.  But  it  included  also  higher,  or,  as  we 
should  say,  university  training  through  studies  not  specified 
in  the  lower  curriculum,  and  taken  up  there,  if  at  all,  only  in  a 
correlated  and  very  elementary  and  concrete  way, —  studies 
like  psychology  and  philosophy,  essential  for  giving  a  solid 

32  There  were  of  course  various  kinds  of  schools  as  to  breadth, 
standards,  and  thoroughness.  Then  again  there  were  schools  that 
gave  themselves  sensibly  to  their  appointed  tasks,  suited  to  the  pupils 
under  their  charge,  and  schools  that  aped  higher  schools  and  grasped  at 
some  of  their  tasks.  All  this  was  to  be  expected  under  private  initia- 
tive before  the  days  of  uniform  state  aims.  It  should  be  noted  also 
that  some  pupils  went  from  the  grammar  schools  to  other  professions 
than  that  of  the  orator,  and  for  them  a  simpler  curriculum  may  have 
been  sufficient.     See  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  361. 

33  Suetonius,  Lives  of  Gram.  (Quintilian).  See  Smith's  Die.  of 
Antiq. 

34  Tacitus,  Or.,  36;  Cicero,  Mur.,  4.     See  Clarke,  op.  cit. 

35  Appendix  2;  Becker,  op.  cit.,  1Q2. 

Young  men  sometimes  went  directly  from  the  Grammar  School  to 
the  Forum,  thus  abbreviating  their  curriculum  and  proportionally 
weakening  it.  Then  as  now,  they  hurried  toward  the  goal,  and  often 
missed  it.  Suetonius,  Lives  of  Gram. ;  Monroe,  op.  cit.;  Quintilian  also 
refers  to  it. 

36  See  below,  pp.  125-6. 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  123 

basis  for  oratory,  and  studies  like  civil  law,  needed  by  the  ora- 
tor on  the  technical  side  in  his  capacity  as  lawyer.  This  school 
will  be  considered  more  in  detail  in  the  next  chapter.37 

Rome  and  Greece  compared. —  In  Greece  we  found  two 
typical  schools,  the  practical  language  school,  or  school  of 
rhetoric,  and  the  philosophical  school.  The  Romans  devoted 
themselves  especially  to  the  first.  They,  however,  combined 
with  it,  for  practical  purposes  in  giving  finishing  touches  to 
the  orator,  the  main  features  of  dialectic,  but  rather  in  form 
than  in  the  philosophic  spirit  of  the  Greeks.  Diagogic  educa- 
tion was  foreign  to  the  ideals  of  Rome,  except  for  the  special 
few. 

A  brief  summary  in  tabular  form  will  give  a  general  view 
of  Roman  secondary  education  of  this  period.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  go  further  into  details  here.  An  extended  and  minute 
description  of  the  fully  developed  secondary  school  under 
Quintilian  is  given  in  the  Appendix  to  the  next  chapter. 

Roman  Education  of  the  Second  Period. 

Aim:  —  A  practical  one.  To  prepare  for  a  career  in  State  or 
Forum  is  the  most  practical  idea.  All  else  is  subservient.  In 
spite  of  the  practical  aim,  however,  a  high  degree  of  culture  re- 
sulted. 

Women  enjoyed  elementary  education  and  something  more.38 

The  curriculum :  —    • 

Elementary  —  Ages  7-11  Secondary  —  Grammar  School 

(Girls  and  Boys).  —  Ages  12-15 

Similar  in  subjects  to  education  Language:  —  Reading  (ad- 
of  the  early  period.  But  more  vanced), —  diction  and  ex- 
attention  to  rapid  writing  ad-  pression  emphasized;  reading 
vocated  by  Quintilian.  as  a  fine  art. 

Greek  added, —  taught  conversa-  Grammar  (Greek  and  Lat- 

tionally.     (Greek  became  the  in),  with  minute  philological 

prominent  language  in  educa-  treatment    of    at    least    Latin 

tion.)  grammar,  but  not  much  syn- 

Form   and   expression   em-  tax,   and  no  parsing.     Dicta- 

phasized  in  reading.  tion     exercises     (supply    the 

place  of  text-book,  etc.). 

Material:  —  XII  Laws,  Homer,  Literature    (extracts    from 

37  See  Chapter  IX,  Appendix,  p.  142. 

88  See  Appendix  4,  and  Chapter  VII,  p.  104. 


124 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


ballads,  etc.  Maps.  Coun- 
ters and  abacus. 
Child  more  under  attendants 
and  in  school.  So  more  at- 
tention to  formal  education, 
which  was  of  rather  a  severe 
type.  Domestic  forces  weak- 
ened. 


poets  memorized).  "Critical 
study  of  language  and  literary 
qualities  of  poets  "  ;  also  "  ex- 
planation of  poets." 

Composition,  Declamation, 
Elementary  Rhetoric,  and  Or- 
atory. 

Writing  (parchment  and  pen 
now;  wax-tablet  is  the  stu- 
dent's "  scratch  book)." 

Mathematics, —  arithmetic,  ge- 
ometry, astronomy  (simple 
and  concrete). 

History, —  correlated. 

Geography, —  correlated. 

Music, —  rhythm  and  meter. 
Contrasted  with  Greek 
ideas. 

Gymnastic  exercises,  —  for 
health  and  military  pur- 
poses. End  a  practical,  not 
an  educational  one. 

Material :  —  Writing  utensils. 
Maps.  Books, —  y£sop,  Ho- 
mer and  other  poets ;  also 
prose  works ;  but  poetry  espe- 
cially emphasized. 

Linguistic  training  the  core  of 
secondary  education.  All  else 
subordinate.  Latin  growing 
as  a  culture  language  and  win- 
ning first  place. 

In  addition  to  this  the  boy  des- 
tined for  oratory  (the  legal 
profession)  had  two  secondary 
years  in  the  Rhetor  School 
studying  composition,  elo- 
cution, and  literature,  and 
other  years  of  higher  work 
elsewhere.39 


Method  in  the  Secondary  school:  —  Language  and  literature. 
Artistic  work  in  reading.  Dictation.  Reproduction.  Paraphras- 
ing. Grammatical  drill.  Prosody  and  verse  writing.  Translation 
(including  cross-translation).     Interpretation  or  exegesis  of  poets 

39  Varro's  curriculum  was  grammar,  rhetoric,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
astronomy,  dialectic,  medicine,  architecture,  music. 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  125 

("explanation  of  the  poets").  Close,  critical  study  of  literature. 
—  Elementary  Rhetoric  and  Oratory:  —  Scheme  and  specimens 
for  guidance  and  training;  also  text-book  work. —  Geography, 
map  work. —  History,  correlated  with  language  work.  Quintilian 
advocates  concrete  and  correlated  work. —  Ethical  teaching:  —  Cor- 
related with  writing,  etc.     Emulation,  rewards. 

Outside  of  literature  text-books  instruction  was  chiefly  oral. 
Work  often  superficial  except  in  linguistics. 

Memory  work,  imitation,  and  practice  were  the  prominent  fea- 
tures of  method.40 

Initiation  ceremonies. —  But  we  must  not  allow  this  con- 
spicuous and  engrossing  program  of  study  and  training  to 
occupy  the  field  of  vision  so  fully  as  to  hide  the  old  forms. 
The  typical  ceremonies  of  the  old  adolescent  course  still 
remained.  The  formal  exchange  of  togas,  the  sacrifice  at 
the  Capitol,  the  "  entering  of  the  Forum,"  with  other  charac- 
teristic forms,  were  all  present.  These  ceremonies,  or  at  least 
some  of  them,  had  probably  increased  in  elaborateness  and 
detail,  but  decreased  in  real  meaning  and  in  vital  relation  to 
characteristic  instincts.  In  the  lapse  of  time  instincts  them- 
selves had  become  quiescent  or  had  been  supplanted.  The  old 
was  rather  present  as  a  persistent  form ;  the  new  represented 
the  actual  and  real  for  the  training  of  Roman  youth,  except  so 
far  as  sentiment  and  ceremony  served  to  give  significance  to 
changes  that  occurred  at  the  adolescent  period,  when  the  young 
Roman  assumed  a  new  attitude  toward  work  and  life, —  par- 
ticularly toward  the  state.  There  was  one  part  of  the  old, 
however,  that  remained  in  vigor.     This  was  the  special  feature 

40  Method  in  higher  education.  See  page  122. 
_  Specialized,  and  conducted  in  different  places  calculated  to  give  prac- 
tical training  for  different  pursuits.  Study  for  scholarship  attracted 
some.  For  those  who  entered  public  life  the  higher  education  was 
advanced  training  in  oratory  in  rhetorical  schools.  Training  here  was 
given  in  great  detail,  following  naturally  from  the  secondary  course; 
an  intensive  course  of  work,  essentially  literary,  or  linguistic,  but  re- 
quiring the  whole  range  of  knowledge,  to  give  foundation  and  sub- 
stance. Mathematics,  law,  and  philosophy  were  studied  under  special 
teachers,  but  not  regarded  as  essential  factors  in  rhetorical  schools ; 
they  were  useful  for  an  orator  however  (see  Quintilian).  They  were 
"  merely  touched,"  except  by  the  few.  Law  and  oratory  were  the  sum 
and  substance  of  the  curriculum  for  public  life.  Post-graduate  work 
was  sometimes  carried  on  at  Athens,  Rhodes,  etc.  See  Cicero,  Ad  At, 
XII,  32. 


i26  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  the  old  secondary  training  represented  in  the  expressions 
"  in  Forum  venire,"  "  Forum  attingere."  The  Roman  youth 
depended  much  on  this  for  his  practical  grasp  of  Roman  public 
life.41 

Net  results  of  the  period. —  The  last  chapters  show  that 
with  the  rise  of  letters  the  elementary  school  came  as  an  intro- 
duction to  secondary  work,  and  that  the  higher  school  was 
added  on  the  other  side  to  give  the  technique  for  professional 
work.  The  typical  secondary  school,  shown  most  character- 
istically on  Roman  soil  and  in  Quintilian's  time,  thus  became 
a  formal  institution  related  above  and  below  and  accordingly 
modified  in  function  and  curriculum.  Its  function  was  a 
double  one,  looking  on  one  side  toward  culture,  and  on  the 
other  toward  preparation  for  the  one  profession  that  monopo- 
lized attention  at  the  time.  In  effect  it  was  a  vocational  school, 
or  rather  an  introduction  to  vocational  study.  It  was  cultural, 
because  success  as  an  orator  involved  the  highest  degree  of 
culture.  The  old  thought,  however,  that  centered  in  civic  de- 
velopment and  patriotic  mastery  of  the  inheritances  of  the  race 
was  still  evident,  both  in  initiation  ceremonies,  preserved  in 
semblance  at  least,  in  great  feeling  for  state  service,  even 
though  largely  a  matter  of  personal  ambition,  and  in  enthusi- 
asm for  the  achievements  of  the  city-state  in  literature  and 
politics. 

APPENDIX 

i.  "  Grammar."— "  The  science  of  grammar  was  in  ancient  times 
far  from  being  in  vogue  at  Rome;  indeed  it  was  of  little  use  in  a  rude 
state  of  society,  when  the  people  were  engaged  in  constant  wars  and 
had  not  much  time  to  bestow  on  the  liberal  arts.  At  the  outset  its  pre- 
tensions were  very  slender,  for  the  earliest  men  of  learning,  who  were 
both  poets  and  orators,  may  be  considered  as  half-Greek.  speak 
of  Livius  and  Ennius  who  are  acknowledged  to  have  taught  both 
languages,  as  well  at  Rome  as  in  foreign  parts.  But  they  only  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek,  and  if  they  composed  anything  of  their  own  in 
Latin,  it  was  only  from  what  they  had  before  read." 

"  Crates  of  Mallos  .  .  .  was  in  our  opinion  the  first  who  introduced 
the  study  of  grammar  (of  course  in  the  Roman  sense)  at  Rome."  This 
was  about  157  b.  c. 

« Cicero,  Amic.  1 ;  Becker,  op.  cit.  Probably  the  passage  quoted 
from  Tacitus  on  page  107  has  more  force  here  than  in  the  first  period. 


ROME  — LATER  PERIOD  127 

"The  appellation  of  Grammarian  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks, 
but  at  first  the  Latins  called  such  persons  Literati." — Suetonius,  Lives 
of  Gram. ;  Monroe,  Source  Book,  349-5Q- 

2.  Subject  matter  of  the  orator. —  Tacitus  in  his  Dial,  de  Or.  says 
that  "  the  old  orators  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  declaim  in  the 
schools,  and  to  exercise  their  tongues  and  their  voices  alone  upon 
fictitious  controversies,  remote  from  reality,  but  rather  to  fill  their 
minds  with  such  studies  as  concern  life  and  manners,  as  treat  of  moral 
good  and  evil,  of  justice  and  injustice,  of  the  decent  and  the  unbecoming 
in  actions,  because  these  constitute  the  subject  matter  of  the  orator." 

3.  Services  of  poets. — "  The  tender  lisping  mouth  of  a  child  the  poet 
forms ;  even  in  their  early  days  he  turns  the  ears  of  the  young  from 
evil  words ;  presently  he  fashions  the  heart  by  kindly  precepts ;  he  is 
the  corrector  of  roughness,  of  malice,  of  anger ;  he  tells  of  virtuous 
deeds ;  the  dawn  of  life  he  furnishes  with  illustrious  examples ;  the 
helpless  and  sad  of  soul  he  comforts.  Whence  could  the  pious  boys 
and  virgins  learn  their  hymns  of  prayer,  had  not  the  Muse  granted 
us  a  bard?  The  chorus  prays  for  aid,  and  Heaven's  presence  feels, 
and  in  set  form  of  persuasive  prayer  implores  rain  from  above,  averts 
disease,  drives  away  dreaded  dangers,  obtains  peace  and  a  season  rich 
with  its  crops.  Appeased  by  hymns  are  gods  above  and  gods  below." 
—  Hor.,  Epist.  II,  1,  126  ff.     (Monroe,  op.  cit.,  398.) 

4.  Education  of  women. —  Musonius  speaks  of  the  education  of 
women,  and  thinks  that  as  far  as  the  culture  of  virtue  is  concerned 
they  should  have  the  same  education  as  men ;  and  again  he  says,  "  only, 
as  regards  any  of  the  most  important  matters,  let  not  the  one  be  taught 
differently  from  the  other."  He  admits  however  that  each  sex  has  its 
appropriate  field,  and  he  would  make  some  exceptions  in  education,  such 
as  omitting  gymnastics  for  women.  But  he  sets  great  store  by  philos- 
ophy (the  science  of  matters  regarding  life)  for  both  men  and  women. 
See  quotations  from  Musonius  given  by  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  427  ff.  (Mon- 
roe, op.  cit.,  401.) 

5.  Scheme  for  composition. — "  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the 
Roman  boy  had  thrown  on  him  the  impossible  task  of  producing  the 
exercises  above  referred  to  without  help  and  guidance."  He  was  aided 
in  this  by  "topics"  ("loci"),  which  "had  for  their  object  the  fixed 
development  of  a  subject  in  a  certain  form  and  the  art  of  finding 
arguments.  Without  entering  into  details,  which  however  are  interest- 
ing educationally,  I  shall  borrow  from  Professor  Jullien  a  statement 
of  the  topical  hints  for  an  exercise  on  a  chria,  i.e.,  dictum  or  pregnant 
sentence  ascribed  to  some  distinguished  man :  e.g.,  Plato  says  '  the 
Muses  dwell  in  the  soul  of  the  cultured  man.' " 

1.  A  laudation  of  the  writer  to  whom  the  utterance  or  deed  was 

ascribed. 

2.  The  paraphrase,  in  which  the  thought  was  expanded. 

3.  The  motif  or  underlying  principle,  which  explained  and  justified 

the  truth  of  the  thought. 


128  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

4.  Comparison,    i.e.,    the    comparison    of    the    thought    with    other 

thoughts  like  or  unlike,  just  as  Plutarch  compares  characters 
in  his  Lives. 

5.  The  example,  which  was  furnished  by  some  distinguished  man. 

6.  Witnesses  to  confirm  the  dictum,  i.e.,  quotations  from  authorities 

who  had  said  the  same  or  a  similar  thing. 

7.  Conclusion,  which  often  took  the  form  of  an  oratorical  exhorta- 

tion. 

So  guided,  and  with  models  of  similar  exercises  before  him,  often 
written  by  the  master,  the  boy  could  scarcely  fail  to  produce  a  fairly 
good  essay  or  declamation,  especially  as  the  learning  by  heart  of  the 
poets  had  stored  his  mind  with  words  and  felicitous  expressions." 
Laurie,  op.  cit.,  370-1. 


IX 

SECONDARY    EDUCATION    IN    QUINTILIAN    AND    CICERO 

From  the  general  characteristics  and  ideals  of  Roman  edu- 
cation that  have  been  discussed  in  previous  chapters  it  does 
not  seem  strange  that  the  most  prominent  writers  on  Roman 
pedagogy  whose  works  we  possess  were  a  consummate  orator 
and  an  equally  consummate  teacher  of  orators.  They  can 
hardly  be  called  theorists,  as  was  the  case  with  the  two  writers 
on  Greek  education  whom  we  considered,  for  the  work  of  one 
of  them  grows  out  of  actual  educational  practice,  and  perhaps 
largely  out  of  his  own  experience,  while  that  of  the  other  is 
based  on  existing  school  programs  and  on  his  own  work  as 
teacher. 

Cicero  and  Quintilian  compared. —  We  need  not  dwell  on 
Cicero  here,  for  he  contributed  little,  if  anything,  that  was  new 
in  secondary  school  polity.  He  was  a  lay  writer  chronicling 
school  customs  of  his  day  and  giving  us  an  attractive  auto- 
biography for  the  period  of  school  life,  with  some  reflections 
suggested  by  it.  In  some  respects  he  is  all  the  more  interest- 
ing for  these  reasons.  He  deserves  a  distinct  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  education.  But  since  he  has  given  us  practically 
nothing  that  is  not  included  in  the  educational  scheme  of  the 
great  school  man,  Quintilian,  detailed  consideration  of  his 
suggestions  as  to  education  will  be  omitted,  except  for  a  few 
notes  in  the  appendix,  and  the  chapter  will  be  given  specifically 
to  Quintilian.  Cicero  is  the  orator  giving  a  general  disquisi- 
tion on  the  education  of  an  orator.  Quintilian  is  the  educator 
describing  scientifically,  and  with  a  wealth  of  detail  and  illus- 
tration, the  course  and  method  of  training  for  what  Nettleship 
rightly  calls  the  great  liberal  profession  of  Rome, —  the  profes- 
sion of  lawyer,  senator,  statesman  combined.  We  have  in 
effect  a  masterly  account  of  the  training  of  the  liberally  edu- 
cated and  professionally  educated  man.     It  must  therefore 

129 


i3o  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

cover  the  whole  range  of  school  life, —  elementary  education, 
secondary  and  higher  education,  and  professional  education. 

Estimate  of  Quintilian. —  In  a  way  Quintilian  summarizes 
ancient  education  and  lays  the  foundation  for  modern  peda- 
gogy. He  is  one  of  the  few  great  master  teachers  of  the  world. 
His  really  wonderful  book  is  the  first  systematic  treatise  on 
pedagogy.  Through  this  and  his  own  personal  influence  as  a 
teacher  he  impressed  himself  deeply  on  school  life  in  general 
and  especially  on  the  secondary  school.  So  deeply  did  he 
impress  himself  on  the  latter  that  for  many  centuries  it  was 
largely  the  embodiment  of  Quintilian's  curriculum  and  method ; 
even  to-day  it  bears  unmistakable  resemblance  to  his  model. 
Secondary  school  pedagogy  does  not  go  beyond  Quintilian, 
except  as  Quintilian  inherited  from  beyond.  The  rest  were 
forgotten ;  his  impress  alone  was  acknowledged. 

His  qualifications  for  writing  on  education. —  Quintilian's 
success  as  a  writer  on  education  is  largely,  if  not  wholly,  due 
to  the  fact  that  he  was  a  practical  school  man.  That  he  had 
gained  practical  experience  in  the  Forum,  had  been  a  teacher 
for  many  years  in  Rome  and  perhaps  also  in  Spain,  and  had 
been  master  of  the  first  state  school  or  college  at  Rome  placed 
him  in  the  best  possible  position  to  write,  not  only  intelligently, 
but  also  scientifically,  on  the  subject  in  question. 

Altogether  Quintilian  is  more  worthy  of  close  study  in  this 
connection  that  any  writer  on  pedagogy  in  the  history  of  the 
secondary  school, —  at  least  down  to  the  nineteenth  century. 
However,  only  a  general  discussion  of  his  main  contributions 
to  secondary  education  will  be  in  place  here.  An  appendix 
will  supply  a  full  description,  with  citations,  for  those  who 
wish  to  see  more  in  detail  what  this  great  master  of  his  art  has 
given  us. 

Characteristic  features  of  his  secondary  school.  His  aim. 
—  The  great  end  of  his  training  was  the  Roman  ideal  that 
has  already  been  sufficiently  emphasized,  the  development  of 
the  complete  orator : 


"  A  man,  who,  being  possessed  of  the  highest  natural  genius, 
stores  his  mind  thoroughly  with  the  most  valuable  kinds  of 
knowledge ;  a  man  sent  by  the  gods  to  do  honor  to  the  world  and 
such  as  no  preceding  age  has  known,  a  man  in  every  way  eminent 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         131 

and  excellent,  a  thinker  of  the  best  thoughts  and  a  speaker  of  the 
best  language."  1 

"  No  man,"  he  says,  "  will  ever  be  thoroughly  accomplished  in 
eloquence  who  has  not  gained  a  deep  insight  into  the  impulses  of 
human  nature  and  formed  his  moral  character  on  the  precepts  of 
others  and  on  his  own  reflection."  ..."  I  should  desire  the 
orator  whom  I  am  trying  to  form  to  be  a  kind  of  Roman  wise  man 
who  may  prove  himself  a  true  statesman,  not  by  discussions  in  re- 
tirement, but  by  personal  experience  and  exertions  in  public 
life."  * 

Practical  efficiency. —  Such  is  the  ideal  that  his  fine  edu- 
cational imagination  pictures  to  him.  In  his  scheme  of  educa- 
tion, however,  he  takes  the  ordinary  material  of  the  school  and 
sets  himself  the  task  of  training  to  the  highest  standard  pos- 
sible. His  aim  is  to  make  an  effective  man  of  high  character, 
able  to  maintain  an  honorable  place  in  Roman  life.  It  is  thus 
an  intensely  practical  one  that  should  appeal  to  present  day 
educators  whose  main  thought  is  practical  efficiency. 

Curriculum.  Composition  the  central  subject. —  In  his 
curriculum  we  should  find  nothing  striking  to  distinguish  it 
from  what  has  already  been  given.  In  fact  Quintilian  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  chapter  that  summarizes  Roman  edu- 
cation for  the  later  historical  period,  though  largely  without 
name.  It  is  in  detail  and  in  spirit  that  we  find  his  real  contri- 
butions. These  appear  especially  and  typically  in  his  treat- 
ment of  composition.  Writing  was  the  great  medium  and 
means  of  training.  Quintilian  cannot  say  too  much  for  it.2 
It  is  his  main  dependence  in  the  training  of  an  orator.  He 
therefore  lays  out  a  detailed  and  thorough  course  in  it,  which 
he  describes  with  great  fulness,  showing  how  to  begin  and 
the  various  steps  to  be  taken  to  give  a  complete  training.  Side 
by  side  with  this,  causa  exemplorum,  goes  an  equally  compre- 
hensive and  appreciative  study  of  literature,  ancient  and  mod- 
ern, Greek  and  Latin,  that  of  itself  would  give  a  liberal  educa- 
tion. His  remarks  as  to  values  and  purposes  here  are  both 
interesting  and  helpful  in  understanding  his  ideal.     Literature 

1  See  Quintilian,  XII,  1,  2.     Appendix  2,  page  139. 

2 "  In  writing  are  the  roots,  in  writing  are  the  foundations  of  elo- 
quence. By  writing  resources  are  stored  up,  as  it  were  in  a  sacred 
repository  whence  they  may  be  drawn  forth  for  sudden  emergencies, 
or  as  circumstances  require,"  X,  3:3.    See  Appendix  for  details. 


132  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

is  his  most  important  study  for  training  in  composition  and 
language.  With  it,  and  chiefly  correlated  with  it,  goes  a  care- 
ful study  of  arithmetic  and  geometry,  for  training  and  infor- 
mation rather  than  for  practical  value;  of  astronomy  and 
history,  as  making  for  general  intelligence  and  affording  a  key 
to  the  interpretation  of  allusions;  of  rhetoric  and  music,  as 
giving  form  to  thought  and  style  to  language;  and  of  elocution 
and  physical  training,  which  add  grace  to  voice  and  person. 
His  scheme  was  therefore  well-rounded,  and  its  parts  were 
carefully  related. 

Method. —  But  he  contributes  more  to  pedagogy  in  his 
treatment  of  method  than  otherwise.  His  books  are  rich  in 
minute  details  as  to  conducting  class  work.  He  explains  the 
manner  and  spirit  in  which  composition  should  be  guided  and 
corrected ;  the  various  kinds  of  exercises  in  literature  for  meet- 
ing the  ends  of  discipline  and  information,  and  especially  for 
supplying  models,  ethical,  literary,  grammatical,  and  rhetorical ; 
the  kind  of  training  in  reading  that  is  adapted  to  pupils  of  this 
age;  the  line  of  teaching  that  must  be  applied  to  rhetoric  to 
make  it  a  live  subject;  the  method  for  training  pupils  in  voice, 
carriage  and  manner  in  declamation;  and  the  principles  that 
underlie  sound  memory  training.  Much  of  this  is  refreshing 
reading  even  now,  especially  his  remarks  on  composition,  read- 
ing, rhetoric,  and  memory  training.  He  can  hold  his  own 
with  the  best  modern  pedagogical  writers  on  such  topics.  In 
rhetoric  he  could  give  the  average  teacher  points  that  would 
put  him  far  in  advance  of  his  present  method  of  teaching.3 

Feeling  for  the  boy.  Child  psychology. —  But  Ouintilian 
had  real  feeling  not  merely  for  his  subject,  dear  as  that  was 
to  him,  but  also  for  the  boy.  There  was  to  be  no  cold  dealing 
out  of  rules  and  manipulation  of  practice  and  drill,  as  was 
often,  probably  generally,  the  case.  He  knew  his  pupils  so 
thoroughly  that  his  knowledge  became  intuition,  and  he  inter- 
wove in  his  scheme  many  a  human  element  and  fine  feeling  for 
the  child.  His  estimate  of  teachers  from  this  point  of  view 
was  correspondingly  keen  and  appreciative.  Ouintilian  thus 
had  two  schemes  of  "  concentration  "  in  his  educational  plan, 
one   in   which   everything   was   grouped   around   his   "  core," 

3  For  details  of  method  see  Appendix. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         133 

linguistics,  and  the  other  in  which  the  boy  was  the  center,  and 
culture  and  training  material  were  related  to  him.  Through- 
out the  discussion  there  is  a  play  back  and  forth  between  these 
two  ideas. 

Training,  not  nature. —  Quintilian  had  a  genuine  enthu- 
siasm for  his  subject.  He  treats  it  broadly  and  thoroughly,  as 
a  means  to  a  great  end  that  calls  for  the  best  from  teacher, 
pupil,  and  curriculum.  No  catch-penny  methods  or  superficial 
short-cuts,  such  as  some  sophists  used,  received  any  counten- 
ance from  him.  He  had  also  a  genuine  faith  in  the  power  of 
training.  Not  nature,  but  training  was,  in  his  opinion,  the 
chief  factor  in  the  finished  product.  At  the  opening  of  his 
book  he  says: 

"  You  will  find  the  greater  number  of  men  both  ready  in  per- 
ceiving and  quick  in  learning,  since  such  quickness  is  natural 
to  man.  .  .  .  But  dull  and  unteachable  persons  are  no  more  pro- 
duced in  the  course  of  nature  than  are  persons  marked  by  mon- 
strosity and  deformity;  such  are  certainly  but  few.  It  will  be 
a  proof  of  this  assertion  that  among  boys  good  promise  is  shown 
in  far  the  greater  number;  and  if  it  passes  off  in  progress  of 
time,  it  is  manifest  that  it  was  not  natural  ability,  but  care  that 
was  wanting, — "  4 

which  reminds  us  that  in  all  ages  backwardness  in  school  is 
generally  due  to  bad  teaching  at  some  stage  of  the  child's 
school  life,  or  to  bad  habits  and  bad  environment.  The  high 
aims  of  education  were  never  more  strikingly  and  simply  stated 
than  by  Quintilian. 

Characteristic  features  of  his  school. —  So  much  for  a  gen- 
eral statement  of  Ouintilian's  contributions  to  education.  To 
formulate  a  little  more  specifically  we  may  give  the  following 
tabulation  of  the  characteristic  features  of  his  school.  This 
will  place  them  before  us  a  little  more  pointedly  and  will  give 
a  clearer  idea  of  Quintilian's  genius  in  pedagogy. 

A.  His  curriculum :  —  Linguistic  work,  with  great  stress 
upon  grammar,  composition,  declamation,  and  literature,  is 
predominant, —  in  fact  practically  comprises  the  secondary 
course.  All  else  is  ancillary  and,  for  the  most  part,  corre- 
lated. 

4  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I,  1:2. 


i34  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

B.     His  methods  — 

i.  The  individual  is  to  be  studied.  Quintilian  makes  the 
psychology  of  his  pupil  one  of  his  guides  in  method,  whether 
for  the  sake  of  the  boy  or  for  the  sake  of  his  subject. 

2.  Talent 5  lies  at  the  foundation,  but  precocity  is  decried. 

3.  Memory  is  the  key  to  education.  Through  it  the  pupil 
stores  a  vast  amount  of  information,  forms,  and  models,  of  all 
kinds,  to  weave  into  his  linguistic  life.  "  The  chief  symptom 
of  ability  in  children  is  memory."  G 

4.  Habit,  as  a  factor  and  determinant  in  education  and  its 
subject  matter,  is  emphasized.  Memory  is  the  storehouse, 
habit  is  the  safety-valve  in  education. 

5.  Imitation  is  the  beginning  and  center  of  intellectual  life. 
Hence  the  imperative  need  of  a  careful  choice  of  teachers  and 
of  subject  matter  in  teaching.7 

6.  Stress  is  laid  on  the  principle  of  interest  as  determining 
the  character  of  at  least  the  early  exercises. 

7.  Provision  is  made  for  concrete,  objective  teaching,  broad 
in  scope,  splendid  in  conception. 

8.  But,  after  all,  close  application  and  persistent  work 
come  to  the  forefront  as  the  real  keys  to  success,  especially  in 
the  two  directions  to  be  noted  in  the  following  sections. 

9.  He  insists  on  extensive  and  intensive  reading  of 
literature  for  general  culture,  but  more  particularly  for  moral 
training,  and  as  a  means  of  developing  linguistic  power.  The 
latter  purpose  is  accomplished  characteristically  through  study, 
imitation,  practice,  and  original  work,  the  first  three  supplying 
a  foundation  and  stimulus  for  the  last. 

10.  Great  emphasis  is  placed  upon  practice,  but  he  has 
regard  also  for  rules.  His  is  a  disciplinary  course  of  the  most 
refined  and  scientific  sort,  leading  up  to  refined  and  effective 
habit.  But  it  is  not  the  formal  discipline,  sometimes  found, 
that  gives  a  culture  forced  from  without,  but  rather  one  that 
develops  personality  from  within,  by  which  a  balance  is  set  up 
between  the  external  and  the  internal.     How  far  he  is  removed 

5  But  talent  only  as  supported  by  industry.     Talent  is  less  powerful 
than  training. 
"Do.,  1,3:1. 
7  Do. ;  also  II.  2 :  1  ff ;  X.  2 : 1. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         135 

from  the  former  is  indicated  by  various  passages  showing  his 
care  for  developing  personality  and  individuality. 

11.  His  scheme  is  therefore  marked  by  careful  insistence 
upon  the  development  of  individual  judgment  and  creative 
power,  and  it  includes  careful  directions  for  this  purpose. 

12.  He  advocates  a  discipline  that  draws,  rather  than 
repels,  stimulates  rather  than  depresses  or  represses, —  one  that 
harmonizes  pupil  and  teacher. 

It  thus  appears  that  Ouintilian  emphasizes,  particularly, 
memory  work,  imitation,  practice,  drill,  and  individual  work. 
On  these  lines  he  builds  up  an  elaborate  system  minutely  out- 
lined and  splendidly  described  and  illustrated.  Education  with 
him  has  become  not  only  a  science,  but  an  art.  His  thought  is 
based  not  only  on  empirical  knowledge,  but  on  principles  drawn 
from  his  own  experience  and  from  the  work  of  previous  educa- 
tors, and  on  the  philosophic  insight  of  the  trained  mind.  The 
tone  that  comes  from  the  practical  school  man  gives  it  added 
charm.  His  book  is  so  full  of  substance  that  it  is  no  easy 
matter  to  abbreviate  and  summarize ;  for  Quintilian  is  evidently 
"  one  of  the  moderns."  He  gives  us,  in  germ  at  least,  practi- 
cally all  that  modern  pedagogy  has  evolved. 

Final  influence. —  But,  taking  his  Institutes  as  a  whole,  his 
plan  of  teaching  clearly  shows  a  uniformity  of  formal  train- 
ing. Even  his  elaborate  program  of  literary  study  has  more 
or  less  of  the  formal  in  it.  Those  interesting  touches  that 
reveal  an  appreciation  of  child  nature  and  of  educational  devel- 
opment, however,  relieve  and  temper  the  formality.  If  it 
seems  surprising  that,  with  these  germinal  truths  that  appear 
frequently,  the  real  nature  of  education  and  the  educational 
process  was  not  realized  earlier,  we  must  remember  that  ele- 
ments of  the  larger  educational  life  were  not  brought  together, 
so  as  to  make  a  lively  center  of  influence  for  those  who  were 
to  follow.8  Thus,  though  the  Ouintilian  school  was  as 
advanced  for  its  time  and  as  well  adapted  to  its  time  as  can 
be  claimed  for  any  school  in  history,  some  of  its  more  sig- 

8  Even  if  this  part  of  Quintilian's  pedagogy  had  stood  out  most 
prominently,  the  political  and  social  conditions,  as  well  as  the  intellectual 
bent,  of  the  following  years  were  not  favorable  to  progressive  pedagogy. 
The  Grammer  Schools  copied  rather  than  initiated.  But  a  force  was 
at  work  that  would  eventually  produce  a  marvelous  reform. 


136  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

nificant  principles  were  lost  sight  of.  They  must  wait  for 
a  more  scientific  age  to  bring  a  higher  unity  of  educational 
aims  and  plans. 

Formal  discipline. —  Whatever  may  have  been  true  of 
Quintilian,  his  followers  took  the  formal  system  and  made  it 
uniform  through  the  whole  period  of  education, —  developed 
and  intensified  it  so  that  it  almost  took  on  the  nature  of  divin- 
ity. Quintilian  but  dimly,  if  at  all,  realized  education  as  a 
subjective  process;  still  less  did  his  followers  seem  to  realize 
it.  Following  a  path  he  made  so  clear  they  made  education  a 
form  pure  and  simple,  and  this  for  nearly  two  thousand  years.9 

Formal  training  has  generally  been  thought  to  give  some- 
thing called  mental  discipline,  though  the  claim  may  be 
doubted.  It  surely  did  not  get  at  the  source  of  power.  After 
a  time  came  reform  in  elementary  education,  and  reform  has 
spread  to  some  extent  beyond  this  limit.  A  part  of  education 
has  been  remodeled  according  to  sound  educational  science, 
while  a  part  is  still  more  or  less  in  the  shackles  planned  by 
Quintilian  and  forged  by  his  successors. 

Ancient  and  modern  oratory. —  The  Romans  made  the 
orator  the  supreme  specialist,  the  only  one  who  really  made 
himself  tell  on  the  world.  We  have  changed  matters.  The 
qualities  of  the  orator  are  being  added  to  real  specialists  and 
investigators  in  all  lines,  who  must  not  merely  make  them- 
selves felt  by  what  they  discover  and  know,  but  must  win  a 
hearing  by  ability  to  express  and  to  move  men  in  their  special 
fields.  On  the  other  hand  the  orator  does  not  have  the  same 
importance,  nor  hold  the  same  relative  position,  as  that  claimed 
by  the  orators  of  Cicero  and  Quintilian.  In  one  sense  the 
orator's  art  has  been  enlarged;  in  another  sense  it  has  been 
dissipated ;  or  rather  it  has  been  divided  and  its  parts  scattered 
over  the  world  of  thought  and  action,  each  part  having  grown 
into  something  greater  than  the  original  whole. 

Post-Quintilian  development. —  We  have  now  before  us 
the  first  fully  developed  secondary  school  of  which  we  have 

9  Now  and  then  appeared  a  man  or  school  of  a  different  temper. 
Bernard,  Da  Feltre,  Montaigne,  Ascham,  Comenius,  Milton  broke  away 
in  a  degree  from  this  formal  education,  but  secondary  education  as  a 
rule  remained  fast. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         137 

detailed  record.  Though,  as  we  have  seen,  there  were  other 
well-developed  secondary  schools  in  earlier  times,  no  complete 
account  has  come  down  to  us, —  little  more  in  fact  than  some 
more  or  less  general  statements.  Then,  too,  they  lacked  that 
purposeful  practical  environment  that  gave  peculiar  force  and 
momentum  to  the  Roman  school,  and  they  belonged  to  a  people 
who  were  far  from  being  practical  organizers. 

Public  secondary  education. —  It  remained  to  make  the 
secondary  school  public.  The  movement  began  at  an  early 
date, —  about  Quintilian's  time,10  when  Grammar  Schools  were 
already  widely  scattered.  At  that  time  some  schools  were  sup- 
ported by  the  state,  some  by  municipalities,  some  by  private 
funds,  while  the  wandering  teacher  and  private  tutor  still  plied 
their  professions.11  By  425  A.  D.  an  edict  made  the  state  sole 
authority  and  forbade  the  opening  of  schools  by  unauthorized 
persons.12  We  are  not  however  to  suppose  that  all  schools 
were  state  schools  in  a  literal  sense,  simply  that  all  were  under 
general  state  supervision,  some  in  one  status,  some  in  another. 

Decline  of  the  secondary  school. —  But  the  growth  of  im- 
perialism took  away  some  of  the  intense  motives  that  ruled  in 
earlier  education.13  Rhetoric  was  thrown  back  on  itself ;  it 
became  an  end  rather  than  a  means.  Form  became  the  promi- 
nent feature.  The  Roman  Grammar  School,  like  many  other 
civic  and  social  achievements,  was  declining.  A  weak  institu- 
tion would  have  suffered  permanent  decline.  Not  so  this  one. 
It  suffered  eclipse,  but  it  still  lived. 

The  source  of  the  modern  secondary  school. —  A  real  sec- 
ondary school  tradition  had  thus  been  started.  Through  strong 
organization  and  powerful  influences  it  eventually  became  so 
firmly  fixed  that  the  secondary  school  described  in  this  and 
the  preceding  chapter  became  a  dominating  model  for  cen- 
turies and  a  permanent  influence.  From  it  modern  sec- 
ondary school  influences  take  their  rise.     The  line  of  descent 

10  Suetonius.  Vesp.,  XVIII   (Monroe,  op.  cit.,  400). 

11  Pliny,  Epist,  III,  3 ;  IV,  13  (quoted  by  Laurie)  ;  Laurie,  op.  cit., 
420  ff.     See  Monroe,  op.  cit.,  377  ff. 

12  We  find  some  reference  to  jobbery  in  spending  public  money.  Pol- 
itics entered  the  schools  early. 

13  Cicero,  Brutus,  96-7 ;  Dill,  Roman  Soc.  in  the  Last  Cent,  of  the 
West.  Emp. 


138  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  the  secondary  school  passes  directly  to  Rome.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  organization  of  the  secondary  school  there, —  the 
enterprising  and  vigorous  handling  of  the  curriculum,  and  the 
prosecution  of  method, —  had  more  to  do  with  defining  sec- 
ondary education  for  many  centuries  than  any  other  school 
agency  whatever,  and  for  obvious  reasons.  The  secondary 
school  plan,  as  finally  developed  and  organized  there  during 
this  period,  ruled  the  West  exclusively  down  to  the  time  when 
it  had  lost  its  practical  nature  and  Hecker,  Francke  and  their 
followers  began  to  lead  a  movement  for  a  new  practical  cur- 
riculum. It  continued  as  the  predominating  influence  long 
afterwards.  This  does  not  mean  that  Rome  originated  all,  or 
even  many,  details,  but  she  took  up  the  tradition,  put  her  stamp 
upon  it,  and  held  it  so  long  and  impressed  it  so  vividly  that  her 
influence  was  paramount.  Roman  pedagogy  at  its  best, 
Quintilian's  pedagogy,  found  lodgment  in  many  of  the  great 
teachers  who  followed  him.  The  Grammar  Schools  them- 
selves, many  of  them,  did  not  die;  they  were  transformed. 
Though  lost  to  sight,  perhaps,  they  influenced  the  structures 
which  were  built  over  or  into  them.  Some  of  the  Cathedral 
Schools  of  later  times  could  have  disclosed  the  Roman  model  to 
one  who  cared  to  look  within  the  shell.  More  than  this,  they 
could  have  shown  a  continuous  tradition  from  Roman  times. 
The  Roman  Grammar  School  was  the  strongest  moulding 
force  the  secondary  school  had,  in  form,  curriculum,  and 
method,  down  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

APPENDIX  I 

A  quotation  from  Nettleship 14  will  serve  as  an  introduction  to  an 
outline  of  Quintilian's  Institutes  :  — 

A  Roman  Ideal. — "  To  be  a  great  statesman  at  Rome  it  was  neces- 
sary, besides  being  a  soldier,  to  be  an  orator;  a  master  not  only  of 
the  cultivated  style  which  would  appeal  to  the  forty  or  fifty  educated 
senators  and  equites  who  might  meet  to  try  a  case  in  a  court  of  law, 
but  of  the  broader  effects  which  alone  could  make  an  impression  upon 
the  great  contiones.  Oratory  (not  rhetoric)  bade  fair,  in  the  hands  of 
a  comprehensive  genius  like  Cicero,  to  absorb  the  whole  field  of  knowl- 
edge and  education.  To  Cicero,  if  we  may  trust  him  in  the  De  Oratore, 
knowledge  is  the  necessary  condition  of  eloquence,  but  knowledge 
must  be  subservient  to  eloquence.     One  can  hardly  complain  of  him 

14  Lectures  and  Essays,  Second  Series,  by  H.  Nettleship,  p.  67. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         139 

for  adopting  a  point  of  view  which,  after  all,  was  the  prevalent  one 
with  the  mass  of  educated  men  in  classical  antiquity.  For,  with  them, 
literature  was  subordinate  to  life.  The  idea  of  investigation,  of  pain- 
ful study,  undertaken  merely  for  the  sake  of  ascertaining  the  truth  in 
regions  of  fact  such  as  history  or  natural  science,  was  comparatively 
unfamiliar  to  the  literary  aristocracies  who  ruled  the  ancient  Grseco- 
Roman  world." 

APPENDIX  II 

AN    OUTLINE   OF   QUINTILIAN'S    COURSE   OF   TRAINING   FOR 
THE   ORATOR,    OR   THE   EDUCATED    MAN    OF   ROME 

Prefatory  Note :  The  aim  in  giving  so  full  an  outline  is  to  provide  a 
convenient  and  authoritative  resume  of  Quintilian's  great  work  and  thus 
make  his  rather  formidable  treatise,  twelve  books  in  length,  more 
accessible  to  students  of  pedagogy. 

The  whole  outline  deals  with  the  secondary  school,  but  the  latter 
part  would  seem  to  apply  to  what  corresponds  to  the  upper  forms  of 
the  typical  English  secondary  schools  of  fifty  years  ago,15  the  last 
years  of  whose  curriculum  we  are  inclined  to  compare  with  early  col- 
lege work. 

The  end  in  view. —  In  stating  his  aim  we  find  Quintilian's  statements 
practically  identical  with  Cicero's,  for  the  most  part.  The  end  in 
view  is  the  perfect  orator,  "  who  cannot  exist  unless  he  is  a  good 
man."  10 

Qualifications  of  the  Orator. — "  Let  the  orator  therefore  be  such  a 
man  as  may  be  called  truly  wise,  not  blameless  in  morals  only,  for  that 
in  my  opinion,  though  some  disagree  with  me,  is  not  enough,  but  ac- 
complished also  in  science  and  in  every  qualification  in  speaking :  a  char- 
acter such  as  perhaps  no  man  ever  was."  17 

Quintilian  in  another  passage  lays  stress  on  having  ideals  embraced 
in  the  heart  and  thinking  in  conformity  with  them,  and  thus  having 
a  very  practical  hold  on  them.18 

2.  Four  periods  in  his  scheme. —  As  to  the  grading  and  curriculum, 
Quintilian  divides  his  course  of  training  into  four  parts, —  i,  ante-school 
training ;  2,  elementary  education ;  3,  secondary  education ;  4,  higher  or 
professional  education.  In  making  these  divisions  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  Quintilian  does  not  distinguish  by  ages.  At  the  very  outset  he 
shows  that  he  has  no  sympathy  with  those  who  would  make  artificial 
divisions  between  parts  of  school  life,  for  he  combats  the  idea  that 
seven  should  be  the  age  for  beginning  school  work.     He  says  there  is 

15  Eton,  Harrow,  Rugby,  and  others  of  that  famous  group  of  "  Great 
Public  Schools." 

16  Preface  to  his  Institutes,  9. 

17  Do.,  18. 

18  For  other  strong  statements  of  Quintilian  as  to  ideals  see  Chapter 
IX,  pp.  130-31- 


140  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

no  such  beginning,  that  school  life  represents  a  continuity ;  and  again  he 
says  that  the  time  for  sending  to  the  higher  school  is  when  the  pupil 
is  qualified;  he  may  enter  even  before  finishing  the  lower  secondary 
school. 

As  to  the  extent  of  education  in  the  community,  Quintilian  says 
nothing.  He  does  not  mention  the  education  of  girls,  if  we  except  the 
fact  that  he  emphasizes  educated  parents.  But  this  is  natural  from  the 
nature  of  the  case.  He  is  writing  of  the  education  of  the  orator  and 
his  end  colors  his  whole  scheme,  but  we  may  easily  apply  the  most 
essential  features  of  his  earlier  course  to  girls,  who  were  readily  ac- 
corded education  at  Rome. 

Curriculum  for  each  period. —  Coming  to  details  of  the  curriculum, 
then,  we  first  take  up  the  study  and  training  of  the 

Ante-school  period  which  is  just  as  systematically  provided  for  as 
any,  through  the  careful  selection  of  attendants.  The  chief  lines  of 
training  here  are  language  (Greek  and  Latin),  writing,  ethics,  and 
general  information.  Greek,  he  says,  should  come  before  Latin,  be- 
cause it  is  the  original  of  the  Latin,  and  because  the  boy  will  learn 
Latin  any  way.  But  Latin  is  to  follow  apace,  so  that  the  exclusive 
practice  of  either  may  not  "  impede  the  other."  19 

The  elementary  school  period  20  seems  to  continue  the  work  already 
laid  out.  Quintilian's  efforts  are  directed  especially  to  two  points :  i, 
a  discussion  of  the  question  of  public  and  private  schools,  in  which 
he  emphatically  decides  for  the  public  school  with  a  proper  number 
of  pupils,  as  best  for  both  pupil  and  teacher;  2,  a  consideration  of 
management  and  instruction.21  This  school  takes  the  boy  till  he  is 
about  twelve. 

The  secondary  school, —  junior  section.  The  Grammar  School.22  We 
may  fairly  conclude  that  this  school  took  the  boy  about  the  beginning 
of  his  twelfth  year  and  kept  him  till  about  the  beginning  of  his  six- 
teenth year,  though  Quintilian  has  no  regard  for  years ;  he  measures  by 
qualifications.  In  quality  and  scope  the  work  seems  to  correspond 
fairly  well  with  that  of  the  last  grammar  school  years  and  the 
first  high  school  years  with  us,  if  we  take  into  account  the  difference 
in  the  educational  development  of  the  two  epochs. 

The  central  subject  is  grammar,23  in  the  ancient  sense.     We  do  not 

19  Quintilian,  op.  cit.,  I,  i :  12-14. 

20  Quintilian's    arguments    here   are    interesting   and    thorough.     See 

1,2. 

21  See  later  pages  under  method. 

22  A  typical  secondary  school  of  the  European  type.  Compare  the 
English  Grammar  Schools  of  to-day,  whose  curricula  are  more  ex- 
tended than  those  of  our  High  Schools,  providing  for  both  younger 
and  older  pupils. 

23  The  old  name  for  grammar  was  literatura,  showing  that  the  sub- 
ject included  something  besides  the  abstract  technique  of  language. 
The  grammar  pupil,  as  the  most  vital  part  of  his  subject,  took  language 
in  the  concrete  as  well,  i.e.,  literature. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         141 

need  to  come  down  to  modern  times  to  get  a  good  idea  of  concen- 
tration, for  the  organization  of  Quintilian's  curriculum,  with  grammar 
as  the  core,  gives  us  an  excellent  example,  as  far  as  subjects  of  study 
are  concerned.  Grammar  here  includes  first,  the  technicalities  we 
usually  associate  with  the  subject, —  sounds,  divisions,  relations,  limita- 
tions, modifications,  derivatives,  and  historical  changes  of  letters ;  sec- 
ond, the  inflexional  and  formative  elements  in  a  language,  i.e.,  all 
the  technicalities  of  words,  making  a  most  abstract  and  abstruse  study ; 
third,  all  facts  and  principles  associated  with  the  art  of  "  speaking  and 
writing  correctly,"  and  thus  syntax  and  composition.  But  it  is 
much  larger  than  all  this.  As  a  basis  for  composition  it  carries  with 
it  literary  study,  or,  as  Quintilian  calls  it,  the  "  illustration  of  the 
poets."  This  is  itself  a  very  broad  study,  for  it  gives  a  knowledge  of 
words  and  matter,  structure  and  style,  and  involves  knowledge  of 
philology,  music  (meter  and  rhythm),  and  history,24  in  order  to  ex- 
plain allusions  or  otherwise  elucidate  the  text.  Such  an  intensive  study 
under  the  direction  of  the  master  of  grammar  constantly  stimulates 
thought  along  various  lines.  "Grammar"  in  Rome  even  extended 
its  limits  beyond  this  and  assumed  some  functions  connected  with  the 
theory  and  practice  of  eloquence.25  Legitimately  this  phase  of  gram- 
mar must  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  separate  subject,  the  second 
fundamental  of  the  secondary  curriculum,  elementary  rhetoric  (except 
in  so  far  as  it  comes  in  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
literature  just  referred  to).  Rhetoric  and  grammar  are  naturally  ac- 
companied or  supplemented  by  some  elementary  work  in  elocution, 
including  articulation,  pronunciation,  and  expression;  for  after  learn- 
ing to  "  distinguish  words  and  meanings,"  the  boy  must  learn  "  to  ex- 
press meaning."  In  connection  with  this  literary  and  linguistic  study 
comes  a  carefully  chosen  course  of  reading,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  in 
prose  and  poetry,  to  furnish  models.  This  course  is  to  be  selected  with 
special  reference  to  ethical  values  at  first,  till  morals  are  formed. 
Quintilian  believes  that  music 26  is  closely  related  to  oratory,  that 
it  is  calculated  to  cultivate  the  voice  and  give  form  for  language  and 
gesture  for  the  body.  So  he  naturally  makes  it  a  prominent  part 
of  his  curriculum.  Wholesome,  manly  music  is  his  choice,  "  those  strains 
in  which  the  praises  of  heroes  were  sung  and  which  heroes  themselves 
sang;  not  the  sounds  of  psalteries  and  languishing  lutes,  but  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  of  the  art  that  is  of  the  highest  efficacy  in  excit- 
ing and  allaying  the  passions."  Geometry  is  chosen  as  another  essential 
study  in  his  school,  both  for  its  subject  matter  and  for  its  training 
value,  for  he  believes  that  it  excites  the  thinking  powers,  sharpens 
the  intellect,  quickens  perception,  affords  training  in  logic,  and  at  the 
same  time  gives  useful  knowledge  that  delivers  one  from  embarrassing 
errors.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  under  geometry  Quintilian  in- 
cludes "  numbers  "  and  astronomy.27 

24  I,   8.  26  I,   la 

25  II,    I.  27  I,    10. 


142  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

But  Quintilian  lays  most  stress,  as  we  shall  find,  on  writing  (com- 
position),28 as  a  means  of  forming  his  ideal.  His  elementary  course 
includes  grammatical  drill,  reproduction,  paraphrasing,  and  narrative 
work. 

Finally  comes  some  elementary  training  in  delivery29  (elocution), 
involving  rules  for  pronunciation,  expression,  grace  and  propriety  of 
motion,  but  not  theatrical  effects.  It  thus  brings  in  physical  instruc- 
tion in  the  palaestra  for  graceful  carriage,  and  some  training  under 
an  actor  for  elocutionary  purposes. 

Secondary  School, —  second  period.  The  School  of  Rhetoric.30  The 
youth  entered  this  higher  school  sometime  about  the  beginning  of  his 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year.  This  and  the  quality  and  content  of  the 
curriculum  offered  seem  to  show  that  we  have  here  at  least  two  years 
corresponding  to  the  later  part  of  our  high  school  course  of  training. 
As  already  said  Quintilian  does  not  care  for  fixed  limits  of  age.  He 
complains  that  pupils  go  to  the  School  of  Rhetoric  too  late,  the 
grammar  masters  having  usurped  some  of  the  functions  of  the  teachers 
of  rhetoric,  so  that  old  bounds  between  the  two  schools  have  been 
removed,  or  at  least  disturbed.  Thus  teachers  of  the  higher  courses 
now  confine  themselves  only  to  a  part  of  their  legitimate  work,  and 
pupils  are  kept  in  the  Grammar  School  too  long.  He  would  have  each 
school  keep  its  proper  functions.31 

The  School  of  Rhetoric  provides  advanced  training  in  composition 
and  delivery  to  supply  a  broad  and  practical  foundation  for  the  public 
activities  of  the  orator.  It  provides  also  special  memory  training  which 
Quintilian  emphasizes  particularly  in  his  school  plans.  Quintilian  lays 
out  a  very  inclusive  course  in  composition,  in  which  he  sets  the 
roots  of  eloquence.32  Beginning  with  simple  narration  he  advances 
to  somewhat  technical  forms  of  composition  that  have  to  do  with  the 
final  aims  of  the  orator.  He  cordially  indorses  Cicero's  thought  as  to 
the   relation   of  writing  to   oratory :  — 

"  In  writing  are  the  roots,  in  writing  are  the  foundation  of  eloquence; 
by  writing  resources  are  stored  up,  as  it  were,  in  a  secret  repository, 
whence  they  may  be  drawn  forth  for  sudden  emergencies  or  as  cir- 

28  I,  9- 

29  I,  ii. 

30  See  Book  II  and  following  books,  especially  X. 

With  Quintilian's  informal  grading  it  is  difficult  to  draw  the  lines 
in  secondary  education.  The  previous  period  (Grammar-school  period) 
would  seem  in  part  to  include  training  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
lower  "  forms "  of  the  English  Public  School.  For  the  rest  it  was 
secondary.  The  Rhetorical  School  again  should  not  be  regarded  in 
all  its  parts  as  beyond  the  secondary  mark.  It  evidently  included 
both  secondary  and  higher  training. 

31  It  is  interesting  to  find  one  school  usurping  the  functions  of 
another.  It  was  as  vicious  then  as  ever  to  imagine  that  higher  grade 
work  was  higher  work  and  carried  more  distinction  with  it. 

"II,  4-    Conf.  X,  5. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         143 

cumstances  require.     Let  us  above  all  things  get  strength,  which  may 
suffice  for  the  labor  of  our  contests  and  may  not  be  exhausted  by  us."  33 

In  writing  Quintilian  emphasizes  pure  Latin ;  care  of  words  and 
utmost  care  of  matter;  the  significance,  form,  and  measure  of  words; 
adaptation  of  words ;  expression,  in  which,  he  says,  lie  the  faults  and 
excellencies  of  oratory ;  and  arrangement,  in  regard  to  which  he  aptly 
suggests  that  the  order  of  words,  the  typical  divisions  of  the  oration, 
and  the  effective  marshalling  of  all  depend  upon  the  situation.34  Nat- 
urally in  connection  with  this  work  in  composition,  as  in  his  Gram- 
mar School  program,  he  has  a  wide  course  in  reading,55  including  both 
Greek  and  Roman  writers, —  poets,  historians,  philosophers,  orators. 
Here  he  gives  characterizations  of  each  writer  in  his  list  and  explains 
the  limitations  in  the  orator's  use  of  poetry  and  history.  For  train- 
ing in  delivery 3S  he  provides  a  graduated  course, —  simple  declama- 
tion, fully  prepared  beforehand  and  growing  in  difficulty,  half  ex- 
tempore speaking,  i.e.,  speaking  after  premeditation,  and  finally  ex- 
tempore speaking.  In  this  connection  he  suggests  exhaustive  training 
as  to  voice  and  gesture,  in  which  he  again  includes  work  with  the  actor 
and  in  gymnasium  or  palasstra.  This  is  the  climax;  it  represents  the 
completion  of  the  orator's  development.  In  this  and  in  all  the  training 
of  the  Rhetor  School  he  significantly  urges  vigorous  preparation  for 
what  is  needed  in  the  Forum,  the  center  of  interest  for  every  active 
Roman.  As  to  memory  training  37  Quintilian  is  interesting,  suggestive 
and  enthusiastic.  It  is  a  favorite  topic  with  him.  But  he  does  not 
favor  an  artificial  system  of  mnemonics  like  that  of  Simonides.  He 
suggests  rather  a  simple,  common  sense  plan  in  which  he  lays  stress 
on  order,  arrangement,  and  method   (elsewhere  defined). 

Now  we  may  justly  assume  that  the  more  elementary  parts  of  this 
curriculum  were  distinctly  secondary,  occupying  the  secondary  years 
that  have  been  referred  to  as  belonging  to  the  rhetorical  school,  because 
it  took  adolescents  that  had  barely  entered  their  sixteenth  year.38  The 
more  intensive  and  technical  work  of  the  different  courses  that  have 
been  outlined  belonged  to  what  we  may  call  higher  education,  and  to 
them  were  added  psychology,  or  the  part  of  it  that  has  to  do  with  the 
emotions,39  philosophy,40  a  three-fold  subject,  including  "natural  phi- 
losophy," ethics,  and  dialectics,  all  of  which  Quintilian  believed  useful 
and  even  necessary  for  the  end  in  view,  and  civil  law.41 

33  X,  3  :  1-3- 

3*II,  13;  VII,  i ;  VIII,  Introd.,  17-32;  X,  1:5-15. 

35  X,  1 ;  see  XII.  2  :  29. 

36  XI,  3. 

37  See  XI,  2,  et  al. 

38  See  above,  p.  142.  The  typical  European  secondary  school  differed 
and  differs  very  materially,  not  to  say  radically,  from  the  American 
High  School  in  age-groupings. 

39  VI;  XII,  2. 

40  XII,  2. 

41  XII,  3. 


144  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Such  is  the  outline  of  the  different  schools  which  Quintilian  includes 
in  his  scheme  of  education.     We  come  now  to  some  points  as  to  method. 

Principles  and  methods. —  Where  Cicero  is  weak  Quintilian  is  nat- 
urally strong.  In  method  his  books  are  noticeably  rich  and  afford  scope 
for  an  interesting  and  suggestive  study.  For  clearness  it  is  well  to 
take  up  the  four  periods  separately,  making  four  groups  of  suggestions 
as  they  occur  in  the  several  sections  of  the  work  dealing  with  the 
different  parts  of  school  life.  It  will  be  interesting  to  see  how,  when, 
and  how  often  Quintilian  makes  his  various  pedagogical  observations. 
Later  the  matter  can  be  condensed  into  a  general  outline  that  will  give 
his  main  principles.  If  some  of  the  statements  appear  not  to  bear 
strictly  on  method,  they  are  at  least  suggestive  in  that  direction. 

1.  The  ante-school  period. —  Principles  and  method. 

i.  Memory: — "The  chief  symptom  of  ability  in  children  is  memory." 
— "  The  elements  of  learning  depend  on  memory  alone,  which  not  only 
exists  in  children,  but  is  at  that  time  of  life  even  most  tenacious." 
"  It  is  almost  the  only  faculty,  in  early  years,  that  can  be  improved  by 
the  aid  of  teachers."  42 

Imitation,  in  Quintilian's  judgment,  is  the  foundation  of  method. 
Memory  is  the  chief  stay  of  method, —  a  growing  means  of  carrying  it 
out.  He  naturally  has  something  worth  reading  as  to  the  cultivation  of 
this  power.     Here  is  a  brief  summary  of  his  suggestions:  — 

(a)  The  fundamental  condition  of  good  memory  power  is  good 
health.43     (b)     The  second  condition  is  good  training. 

Memory  may  be  trained  by  learning  a  piece  by  parts ;  by  learning 
from  the  same  tablets  on  which  one  writes ;  by  learning  aloud  for  the 
double  stimulus  of  speaking  and  hearing ;  by  learning  from  another's 
reading,  with  frequent  tests  to  avoid  slips ;  by  "  division  and  arrange- 
ment." He  assigns  a  minimum  value  of  systems  of  mnemonics  and  a 
good  deal  of  value,  for  certain  purposes,  to  more  or  less  natural  as- 
sociations with  signs  and  symbols.43  The  "  only  and  great  art  of 
memory  ...  is  exercise  and  labor."  By  beginning  in  childhood  with 
a  small  but  interesting  memory  task,  increasing  it  a  little  each  day,  and 
keeping  up  the  exercise  persistently  through  different  periods  of  life 
in  serious  tasks,  the  orator  may  accomplish  almost  "  inconceivable 
results."  44 

2.  The  child  is  imitative.  Habits  formed  early  are  permanent.  "  The 
next  symptom  (of  ability)  is  imitation."45  ...  "A  great  portion  of  art 
consists  in  imitation." 45  Everywhere  this  is  his  basal  principle  in 
method.  It  will  be  found  giving  character  and  direction  to  the  work 
of  each  period  in  his  system.     Quintilian  follows  his  principle  out  logi- 

42 1,  i :  19,  36;  3:  1. 

43  XI,  2:35. 

44  XI,  2:27ff.,  41. 

45  I,  3 :  1 ;  X,  2 :  1.  What  is  said  in  the  following  paragraphs  on  this 
topic  comes  from  statements  found  in  different  parts  of  the  Institutes. 
There  will  be  specific  additions  as  the  different  periods  are  taken  up. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         145 

cally;  for  he  insists  upon  great  care  in  choosing  those  who  are  to 
take  charge  of  the  child, —  attendants,  nurses,  slaves,  p^edagogi,  for 
whom  good  language,  good  morals,  and  some  knowledge  are  prime  es- 
sentials. Parents  are  to  have  as  much  learning  as  possible.40  All  the 
subject  matter  of  the  boy's  course  is  to  be  selected  wisely  to  furnish 
suitable  models  for  developing  vocabulary,  expression,  style  in  speak- 
ing and  writing,  and  substantial  moral  qualities.47  The  principle  would 
also  -prescribe  equal  care  in  selecting  the  living  model  whom,  accord- 
ing to  the  old  Roman  custom,  the  boy  was  to  choose  and  follow  for  the 
purpose  of  perfecting  himself  in  the  art  of  oratory.48 

Quintilian,  however,  does  not  have  in  mind  any  narrow  or  formal 
principle.  Models  are  not  to  be  merely  copied,  but  studied  with  a 
view  to  getting  at  their  excellencies  and  defects  and  using  them  as  a 
basis  for  modifying,  adding,  and  improving,  and  thus  for  developing 
independent  power.  Judgment  and  discretion  are  to  be  superior  to 
all  rules  and  models,  and  Quintilian's  methods  are  calculated  to  develop 
these  qualities.49  While  therefore  the  principle  provides  for  training 
the  boy  in  the  best  the  world  has  produced  and  thus  tends  to  per- 
petuate modes  and  styles  in  oratory,  it  provides  also  for  judgment 
and   originality  as  modifying  factors. 

"If  it  is  not  allowable  to  add,  .  .  .  how  can  we  ever  hope  to  see  the 
complete  orator?  .  .  .  Even  those  who  do  not  aim  at  the  highest  excel- 
lence should  rather  try  to  excel  than  merely  follow  their  predecessors." 
Otherwise,  he  points  out,  one  will  fall  behind  his  ideal  ..."  He  who 
shall  add  to  these  borrowed  qualities  excellencies  of  his  own,  so  as  to 
supply  what  is  deficient  in  his  models  and  to  retrench  what  is  redundant, 
will  be  the  complete  orator  whom  we  desire  to  see."  50 

It  is  however  imitation  of  the  simple  sort,  child  imitation,  that  he 
applies  in  the  early  school.  Later  schools  built  up  judgment  and 
originality. 

3.  Quintilian  has  high  regard  for  talent  and  natural  aptitudes.  But 
he  has  a  higher  regard  for  the  magic  power  of  training.51 

4.  Those  of  tender  years  are  not  to  be  urged  severely,  and  the 
principle  of  amusement  in  instruction  and  that  of  emulation  and  re- 
wards are  to  be  used.  Having  provided  formal  instruction  for  these 
early  years,  he  must  make  special  provisions  lest  it  miscarry.52 

"  It  will  be  necessary  above  all  things  to  take  care  lest  the  child 
should  conceive  a  dislike  to  the  application  which  he  cannot  yet  love, 
and  continue  to  dread  the  bitterness  which  he  has  once  tasted,  even 
beyond  the  years  of  infancy." 

«•  I,  I. 

« I,  8;  II,  5;  X,  i,2,5;XII,4. 

48  X,  s :  19,  20. 

49  II,  13;  X,  2. 
60  X,  2 :  9,  28. 

"1,3:1;  11,  4:9 ff.;  8:5. 
62 1,  1 :  20. 


146  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

5.  Quintilian  gives  an  important  place  to  the  physical.  It  is  the 
highway  to  success  and  successful  method. 

"  It  is  common  alike  to  learning  by  heart  and  to  composition  that  good 
health,  excellent  digestion,  and  a  mind  free  from  other  subjects  of  care 
contribute  greatly  to  success  in  them."  53 

And,  speaking  of  the  work  of  older  students  particularly,  he  says, 

"  But  in  every  kind  of  study,  and  especially  in  such  nocturnal  appli- 
cation, good  health  and  that  which  is  the  prime  means  of  securing  it, 
regularity  of  life,  are  necessary,  since  we  devote  the  time  appointed 
us  by  nature  for  sleep  and  the  recruiting  of  our  strength  to  the  most 
intense  labor ;  but  on  this  labor  we  must  not  bestow  more  than  what 
is  too  much  for  sleep  and  what  will  not  leave  too  little  for  it." 

6.  Coming  to  the  matter  of  the  child's  school  work,  we  find  that 
Quintilian  would  teach  reading54  by  the  time-honored  synthetic  method, 
though  he  makes  some  improvement  on  it.  The  common  practice  was  to 
learn  the  names  and  order  of  letters  before  their  shapes.  He  advocates 
learning  appearances  and  names  first.  Imitation  and  tracing  are  the 
means,  and  children  may  use  ivory  letters  in  play.  Syllables  follow, 
and  they  are  to  be  learned  by  heart,  even  the  most  difficult.  "  There 
is  no  short  way,"  he  says.55  Then  comes  the  formation  of  words  from 
syllables,  and  phrases  from  words,  and  so  on  to  reading.  Training  in 
pronunciation  is  to  include  practice  in  hard  combinations  of  sounds  that 
remind  us  of  the  old  "  Peter  Piper."  Quintilian  is  very  careful  as  to 
progress  in  reading.  He  urges  teachers  to  avoid  haste,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent interruption,  hesitancy  and  distrust.  A  good  reader  must  be  able 
to  attend  to  the  words  at  hand  and  look  ahead  at  the  same  time. 
This  must  become  a  habit  and  the  habit  requires  slow  and  sure  work.56 

In  writing,  the  tracing  method  is  to  be  followed.  Quintilian  lays 
stress  on  rapid  writing.  So  the  subject  is  to  receive  a  different  kind  of 
attention  from  that  which  had  been  customary  in  Rome. 

"  For,  as  writing  itself  is  the  principal  thing  in  our  studies,  and  that 
by  which  alone  sure  proficiency,  resting  on  the  deepest  roots,  is  se- 
cured, a  too  slow  way  of  writing  retards  thought,  a  rude  and  confused 
hand  cannot  be  read."  5T 

But  correlation  relieves  some  of  the  abstractness  in  his  system,  for 
rich  subject  matter  is  to  be  chosen  for  writing  and  memory  work 
and  also  for  reading,  giving  good  words  and  thoughts  and  useful  knowl- 
edge. 

5*  XI,  2  :  35  ;  X,  3  :  26. 

54  I,  1 :  24  ff. 

We  must  remind  ourselves  here  that  Greek  comes  before  Latin  in 
the  curriculum,  though  it  precedes  only  by  a  little. 

55  There  is,  however,  an  easier  and  more  pedagogical  way. 

56  I,   1  :  33. 
57 1,  1 :  28. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         147 

II.  The  elementary  school  period. —  Principles  and  method. 

1.  The  public  school  is  preferred  for  pedagogical  reasons ;  it  makes, 
he  believes,  better  pupils  and  better  teachers.58  This  is  surely  an  ele- 
ment of  method;  for  the  whole  environment  is  to  be  considered. 

2.  Here  again  great  care  is  to  be  exercised  in  choosing  teachers. 
As  to  the  attitude  of  teachers,  instruction  is  to  be  guided  by  affection 
more  than  by  duty.59  The  management  of  the  school  is  to  be  definite, 
systematic,  and  impressive,  with  strong  moral  results,60  but  Quintilian 
would  have  no  corporal  punishment.  Strong  and  sane  arguments  against 
it  are  given  in  one  of  his  finest  passages.61 

3.  The  teacher  must  study  the  pupil,  to  learn  his  capacities  and 
disposition.  This  evidently  gives  the  basis  for  another  fundamental 
and  far-reaching  principle  that  is  implied  or  expressed  in  various 
passages, —  that  amount  and  quality  of  work,  the  qualities  of  the 
teacher,  and  his  method  of  teaching  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacity, 
development,  and  disposition  of  the  pupil,  as  well  as  to  the  general 
qualities  of  boyhood.62 

4.  Relaxation  is  necessary.  Quintilian  cordially  advocates  it  within 
due  bounds.61  In  this  connection  he  says  significantly :  "  In  their 
plays  also  their  moral  dispositions  show  themselves  more  plainly."  63 

These  are  general  principles  of  method.  As  to  special  method,  since 
the  subjects  of  the  ante-school  period  still  continue  and  the  two 
periods  really  make  one,  we  may  assume  that  the  methods  in  the 
special  subjects  were  similar  to  those  before  described. 

III.  The  Grammar  School  period.  The  secondary  school  —  first 
part. —  Principles  and  method.  1.  After  learning  to  distinguish  words 
and  meanings  comes  learning  to  express  meaning.  Here  Quintilian 
wishes  pieces  of  worth  and  of  benefit  to  the  reader  to  be  chosen.  He 
calls  for  care  as  to  ethical  values,  advising  that  doubtful  works  be 
postponed  till  morals  are  formed.  The  value  of  content  is  thus  sug- 
gested, apart  from  the  formal  training  in  the  subject. 

"Those  writings  should  be  the  subjects  of  lectures  for  boys  which 
best  nourish  the  mind  and  enlarge  the  thinking  powers;  for  reading 

58  I,  2. 

59  i!  2':  15. 

60  This  appears  elsewhere. 
61 1,  3  :  14  ff. 

That  moral  training  is  not  weak  or  superficial  and  loses  nothing  from 
the  absence  of  corporal  punishment  the  following  passage  clearly 
shows :  — 

"  A  child  is  as  early  as  possible  therefore  to  be  admonished  that  he 
must  do  nothing  too  eagerly,  nothing  dishonestly,  nothing  without 
self-control ;  and  we  must  always  keep  in  mind  the  maxim  of  Vergil, 
"  Adeo  in  teneris  consuescere  multum  est."     I,  3:  13. 

62 1,  2 :  28 ;  3 : 6.  See  also  II,  2 :  14 ;  4 : 4  ff . ;  5:1;  6:4;  X,  2 :  20 ;  and 
especially  II,  8. 

63  I,  3:8. 


148  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

other  books  that  relate  merely  to  erudition  advanced  life  will  afford 
sufficient  time."  G4 

All  this  shows  true  pedagogical  insight.     It  is  the  period  for  ideals. 
Quintilian,  true  to  principles  like  these,  is  very  selective  in  the  books 
he  recommends. 

2.  On  the  formal  side,  literature  is  to  be  taken  up  so  as  to  give  a 
many-sided  study,  including  interpretation,  analysis,  grammatical  points, 
figures,  different  significations  of  words,  disposition  of  parts,  adapta- 
tion of  literary  treatment  to  the  requirements  of  the  subject,  and 
allusions.65  Pronunciation  and  expression  are  to  receive  attention 
in  reading,  the  actor  supplying  some  instruction  here.  Gesture  and 
general  carriage  are  also  important,  and  here  he  recommends  the  use 
of  the  palaestra.00 

3.  Composition  work  involves  the  telling  of  the  stories  of  the  poets 
and  the  fables  of  yEsop,  the  paraphrasing  of  poetry,  narratives  from 
poets,  sentence  work,  and  drill   (by  sentences)   on  inflections.67 

4.  Following  his  main  thought  that  the  orator  is  trained  through 
writing  and  speaking,  Quintilian  provides  for  both  methods  here,  as 
in  later  courses.  The  pupil  is  to  "  speak  pieces,"  portions  of  speeches 
that  he  has  committed  to  memory,  "  in  a  loud  voice  and  exactly  as  he 
will  have  to  plead,"  all  this  under  a  "skilful  tutor."68  It  would 
also  appear  that  he  is  to  be  trained  in  oral  reading,  using  both  poetry 
and  prose  from  a  selected  list  suitable  for  young  boys.69 

In  addition  to  these  central  subjects  there  are  other  studies,  cor- 
related or  supplementary,  that  with  them  make  an  extended  curricu- 
lum. They  are  history,  music,  and  geometry,  as  we  have  already  seen.70 
But  Quintilian  occupies  himself  in  discussing  the  value  of  these  sub- 
jects rather  than  in  giving  details  of  method,  except  for  showing  that 
he  would  teach  history  through  correlation.  As  to  the  whole  plan 
for  this  period  however  he  makes  the  reassuring  statement  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  crowding  the  curriculum,  for  the  time  is  long  and  it 
is  easy  to  take  many  studies  at  once,  especially  as  "  variety  refreshes 
and  recruits  the  mind."  Not  all  the  minutiae  are  to  be  given,  but 
more  general  knowledge.  And  yet  the  curriculum  is  not  a  soft  one. 
It  requires  strong,  patient  work.  Quintilian  thinks  however  that  it 
will  appeal  to  such  as  have  a  genuine  interest  in  "  eloquence,  the  queen 
of  the  world,"  not  a  mere  fondness  for  the  returns  that  their  studies 
will  bring  them.71 

•*  I,  8 : 8. 
65  I,  8:i3ff. 
60  I,  11. 

67 1,  9- 
68  X,  11:14. 
68  I,  8. 

70  1 :  10.     Probably  geography  correlated  with  literature  is  also  in- 
cluded in  his  plan. 
71 1,  12:  16  ff. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         149 

IV.  The  secondary  school  —  second  part. —  Principles  and 
method. 

1.  The  very  best  teachers  are  to  be  selected  at  the  outset.  He  uses 
these  significant  words  as  to  some  of  the  needed  qualifications :  — 

"  I  do  not  consider  him  who  is  unwilling  to  teach  little  things  in  the 
number  of  preceptors ;  but  I  argue  that  the  ablest  teachers  can  teach 
little  things  best,  if  they  will ;  first,  because  it  is  likely  that  he  who 
excels  others  in  eloquence  has  gained  the  most  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  means  by  which  men  attain  eloquence ;  secondly,  because  method, 
which,  with  the  best  qualified  instructors,  is  always  plainest,  is  of  great 
efficacy  in  teaching;  and  lastly,  because  no  man  rises  to  such  a  height 
in  greater  things  that  lesser  fade  entirely  from  his  view."  72 

Morals  are  of  prime  consideration  now,  and  are  to  be  investigated 
with  special  care  in  the  case  of  these  teachers,  not  because  he  does 
not  consider  that  the  same  examination  should  be  made,  "  and  with  the 
utmost  care,  in  regard  to  other  teachers, —  but  because  the  very  age 
of  the  pupils  makes  attention  to  the  matter  all  the  more  necessary; 
for  boys  are  consigned  to  these  professors  when  almost  grown  up  and 
continue  their  studies  under  them  even  after  they  become  men ;  and 
greater  care  must  in  consequence  be  adopted  in  regard  to  them,"  so 
as  to  secure  each  age  against  the  dangers  peculiar  to  it.  The  master 
must  be  an  example,  and  he  must  "  regulate  also,  by  severity  of  disci- 
pline, the  conduct  of  those  who  come  to  receive  his  instructions."  He 
is  to  take  the  attitude  of  a  parent,  and  pupils  are  to  look  to  the  teacher 
as  to  a  parent.  He  must  take  the  proper  mean  between  austerity  and 
an  affability  that  is  too  easy,  so  as  to  avoid  both  dislike  and  contempt.73 

"  Let  him  discourse  frequently  on  what  is  honorable  and  good,  for 
the  oftener  he  admonishes,  the  more  seldom  will  he  have  to  chastise. 
Let  him  not  be  of  an  angry  temper,  and  yet  not  a  conniver  at  what 
ought  to  be  corrected.  Let  him  be  plain  in  his  mode  of  teaching  and 
patient  of  labor,  but  rather  diligent  in  exacting  tasks  than  fond  of 
giving  them  of  excessive  length.  Let  him  reply  readily  to  those  who 
put  questions  to  him,  and  question  of  his  own  accord  those  who  do  not. 
In  commending  the  exercises  of  his  pupils  let  him  be  neither  niggardly 
nor  lavish ;  for  the  one  quality  begets  dislike  of  labor,  and  the  other 
self-complacency.  In  amending  what  requires  correction  let  him  not 
be  harsh,  and  least  of  all  reproachful ;  for  that  very  circumstance,  that 
some  tutors  blame  as  if  they  hated,  deters  many  young  men  from  their 
proposed  course  of  study.  Let  him  every  day  say  something,  and  even 
much,  which,  when  pupils  hear,  they  may  carry  away  with  them,  for 
though  he  may  point  out  to  them  in  their  course  of  reading  plenty  of  ex- 
amples for  their  imitation,  yet  the  living  voice,  as  it  is  called,  feeds 
the  mind  more  nutritiously,  and  especially  the  voice  of  the  teacher 
whom  his  pupils,  if  they  are  but  rightly  instructed,  both  love  and  rev- 
erence. How  much  more  readily  we  imitate  those  whom  we  like 
can  scarcely  be  expressed."  74 


"II,  3:5-  74H,  2:sf. 

73  II,  2 : 2. 


150  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  passage  of  this  length  packed  with  more 
good  pedagogy. 

Again  he  says,  in  a  chapter  in  which  he  writes  delightfully  on  the 
relations  between  pupil  and  teacher, — 

"  Neither  can  eloquence  come  to  its  growth  unless  by  mutual  agree- 
ment between  him  who  communicates  and  him  who  receives."  73 

The  teacher  is  to  show  his  worth  and  his  appreciation  of  the  pupil's 
position  also  in  another  way, —  by  a  plain  and  simple  manner  of  teach- 
ing, so  that  the  learner  may  not  be  deterred  by  complicated  presenta- 
tion, and  thus  lose  interest  in  his  study.76 

These  suggestions  of  Quintilian  not  only  tell  us  about  the  teacher, 
but  also  give  us  much  information  about  his  method.  Quintilian  cer- 
tainly has  a  clearly  cut  idea  of  the  instructor  who  is  to  come  up  to 
his  standard.  The  qualities  of  the  secondary  school  teacher  might 
be  summed  up  in  the  two  words,  learning  and  sympathy. 

2.  On  the  part  of  the  pupil  he  chooses  a  modest  attitude  and  dis- 
approves of  demonstration,  "  standing  and  showing  exultation  and 
giving  applause,"  to  be  "  repaid  in  kind."  77 

3.  In  the  direction  of  individual  work  we  may  note  the  following 
points,  most  of  them  suggested  by  passages  already  quoted :  —  We  are 
to  understand  the  nature  of  the  child  at  work;  to  suit  instruction  to 
individuals;  to  separate  ages;  to  adapt  training  to  different  ages;  to 
observe  differences  in  ability,  ascertain  the  direction  in  each  case,  and 
direct  accordingly, 

"  because  nature  attains  greater  power '  when  seconded  by  culture ; 
and  he  that  is  led  contrary  to  nature  cannot  make  due  progress  in  the 
studies  for  which  he  is  unfit,  and  makes  those  talents,  for  the  exercise 
of  which  he  seemed  born,  weaker  by  neglecting  to  cultivate  them."  78 

But  Quintilian  defines  his  thought  on  such  topics  as  follows :  — 

"  To  distinguish  peculiarities  of  talent,"  he  says,  "  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary; and  to  make  use  of  particular  studies  to  suit  them  is  what  no 
man  would  discountenance.  For  one  youth  will  be  fitter  for  the  study 
of  history  than  another ;  one  will  be  qualified  for  writing  poetry,  another 
for  the  study  of  the  law,  and  some  perhaps  ft  only  to  be  sent  into 
the  fields.  The  teacher  of  rhetoric  will  decide  in  accordance  with  these 
peculiarities,  just  as  the  master  of  the  palaestra  will  make  one  of  his 
pupils  a  runner,  another  a  boxer,  etc. 

"  But  he  who  is  destined  for  public  speaking  must  strive  to  excel,  not 
merely  in  one  accomplishment,  but  in  all  the  accomplishments  that  are 
requisite  for  that  art,  even  though  some  of  them  may  seem  too  difficult 
for  him  when  he  is  learning  them.  .  .  .  Yet  I  would  not  fight  against 
nature ;  for  I  do  not  think  that  any  good  quality  that  is  innate  should 

75  II,  9:3.    Another  significant  passage  is  found  in  II,  4:12. 
70  VIII,  Introduction,  1-5. 
77 II,  2:9-10,  11. 
"II,  8:  5;  11,4:9-14. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         151 

be  detracted,  but  that  whatever  is  inactive  or  deficient  should  be  in- 
vigorated or  supplied.79 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  Quintilian  is  not  speaking-  of  general  talent 
here,  but  of  interests.  We  are  likely  to  confuse  ideas  if  we  do  not 
discriminate  in  this  way.  We  have  already  referred  to  Quintilian's 
creed  as  to  talent.  As  to  the  boy's  interests,  modern  pedagogy,  as  far 
as  education  is  concerned,  would  lay  more  stress  upon  acquired  in- 
terests than  upon  natural  interests.  One  cannot  determine  his  real 
interests,80  nor  detect  the  direction  of  his  best  ability,  till  he  has  come 
into  contact  in  a  genuine  educational  way  with  many  things.  Education, 
to  be  truly  selective,  must  select  from  the  multitude,  not  from  the  few. 
Hence  the  multitude  must  go  to  school. 

4.  So  much  for  general  observations.  We  come  now  to  some  peda- 
gogical directions  as  to  a  special  subject, —  composition,  that  we  may 
with  advantage  remind  ourselves  is  the  key-subject  in  his  curriculum. 

(a)  The  teacher  is  to  begin  with  that  to  which  the  pupil  has  learned 
something  similar  under  the  grammarians  (i.e.,  in  the  previous  school).81 

(b)  His  feeling  for  the  boy  is  shown  by  his  attempt  to  meet  his 
qualities.  He  has  the  real  boy  in  mind  with  his  crudeness  and  his  real 
characteristics.82    Here  is  a  characteristic  passage  :  — 

"  That  temper  in  boys  will  afford  me  little  hope  in  which  mental  effort 
is  prematurely  restrained  by  judgment.  I  like  what  is  produced  to  be 
extremely  copious,  profuse  even  beyond  the  limits  of  propriety.  Years 
will  greatly  reduce  superfluity;  judgment  will  smooth  away  much  of  it; 
something  will  be  worn  off,  as  it  were,  by  use,  if  there  be  but  metal 
from  which  something  may  be  hewn  and  polished  off,  and  such  metal 
there  will  be,  if  we  do  not  make  the  plate  too  thin  at  first,  so  that  deep 
cutting  may  break  it.  .  .  . 

"  Above  all  therefore,  and  especially  for  boys,  a  dry  master  is  to  be 
avoided,  not  less  than  a  dry  soil  void  of  all  moisture  for  plants  that 
are  still  tender.  Under  the  influence  of  such  a  tutor  they  at  once 
become  dwarfish ;  .  .  .  while  they  think  it  sufficient  to  be  free  from 
fault,  they  fall  into  the  fault  of  being  free  from  all  merit.  Let  not 
even  maturity  itself  therefore  come  too  fast."  83 

The  principle  for  guiding  correction  of  exercises  with  reference  to 
different  ages  is  well  indicated  in  passages  quoted  on  earlier  pages.84 

(c)  Care,  not  haste,  is  the  desideratum  in  this  work  of  composi- 
tion. 

(d)  Poetical  narrative  came  in  the  previous  school ;  now  comes 
historical  narrative,  which  has,  he  says,  more  of  truth,  more  of  sub- 

79  II,  8:6-10.  Compare  this  with  Cicero's  view  as  to  the  relative 
worth  of  genius  and  diligence, —  De  Or.  II,  35. 

80  Note  also  that  Quintilian  lays  stress  on  culture  and  emphasizes 
practice.    His  book  is  full  of  passages  suggesting  these  things. 

Mil,  4:  I. 

82  II,  4:4,  5- 

83  II,  4:7-8. 

"I,  3:6;  II,  4:i2ff.    See  also  II,  6:4ff. 


i52  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

stance.  Good  grading  is  a  part  of  good  method,  and  Quintilian  is 
strong  here  as  elsewhere.  From  simple  narrative  he  proceeds  through 
various  stages  of  argumentative  and  judicial  writing,  including  briefs, 
much  of  it  of  a  simple  type,  to  be  compared  with  the  average  high 
school  senior's  efforts  of  the  present  day.  The  work  requires  close 
study  and  very  definite  training.  That  a  considerable  part  of  it  is  ele- 
mentary and  preparatory  will  be  seen  in  this  significant  passage,  which 
occurs  in  connection  with  his  description  of  the  first  stage  of  writing :  — 

"  There  will  be  a  proper  time,"  he  says,  "  for  acquiring  facility  of 
speech ;  .  .  .  but  in  the  mean  time  it  will  be  sufficient,  if  a  boy  with 
all  his  care  and  with  the  utmost  application  of  which  his  age  is  capable, 
can  write  something  tolerable.  To  this  practice  let  him  accustom  him- 
self and  make  it  natural  to  him.  He  only  will  succeed  in  attaining 
the  eminence  at  which  we  aim,  or  the  point  next  below  it,  who  shall 
learn  to  speak  correctly  before  he  learns  to  speak  rapidly."  85 

Perfection  of  style  is  not  the  object  at  this  stage. 

With  writing  is  to  go  practice  in  the  oral  reading  of  history  and 
speeches,  with  a  careful  study  of  passages  from  the  points  of  view  of 
language,  rhetoric,  and  literature.  Quintilian  thinks  the  teacher  would 
contribute  much  to  the  advancement  of  pupils, 

"if,  as  the  explanation  of  poets  is  required  from  teachers  of  gram- 
mar, so  he  (the  rhetoric  teacher)  in  like  manner  would  exercise  the 
pupils  under  his  care  in  the  reading  of  history,  and  even  still  more  in 
that  of  speeches."  But  long  custom,  he  tells  us,  has  established  a 
different  mode  of  teaching.  For  himself,  however,  he  says,  and  this 
is  an  indication  of  the  greatness  of  the  man,  "  though  I  should  make  a 
new  discovery  ever  so  late,  I  should  not  be  ashamed  to  recommend 
it  for  the  future."86 

(e)     What  Quintilian  advises  in  the  study  of  the  selections  is  finely 
indicated  in  the  following  passages  :  — 87 

"  But  to  point  out  the  beauties  of  authors  and,  if  occasion  ever  pre- 
sents itself,  their  faults,  is  eminently  consistent  with  that  profession 
and  engagement  by  which  he  (the  teacher  of  rhetoric)  offers  himself 
to  the  public  as  a  master  of  eloquence,  especially  as  I  do  not  require 
such  toil  from  teachers  that  they  should  call  their  pupils  to  their  lap 
and  labor  at  the  reading  of  whatever  book  each  of  them  may  fancy. 
For  to  me  it  seems  easier  as  well  as  more  advantageous  that  the  mas- 
ter, after  calling  for  silence,  should  appoint  some  one  pupil  to  read, 
(and  it  will  be  best  that  this  duty  should  be  imposed  on  them  in  turns), 
that  they  may  thus  accustom  themselves  to  clear  pronunciation;  and 
then,  after  explaining  the  cause  for  which  the  oration  was  composed, 
(for  so  that  which  is  said  will  be  better  understood),  that  he  should 
leave  nothing  unnoticed  which  is  important  to  be  remarked,  either  in 
thought  or  language,  or  in  argument  and  rhetorical  features  for  forensic 
purposes." 

«5  II,  4:15-17.  "II,  5:51*. 

86  II,  5- 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         153 

"  In  regard  to  style,  he  should  notice  any  expression  that  is  pecu- 
liarly appropriate,  elegant,  or  sublime;  when  the  amplification  deserves 
praise;  what  quality  is  opposed  to  it;  what  phrases  are  happily 
metaphorical,  what  figures  of  speech  are  used,  what  part  of  the  com- 
position is  smooth  and  polished,  and  yet  manly  and  vigorous." 

"  Nor  will  the  preceptor  be  under  obligation  merely  to  teach  these 
things,  but  frequently  to  ask  questions  upon  them,  and  try  the  judgment 
of  his  pupils.  Thus  carelessness  will  not  come  upon  them  while  they 
listen,  nor  will  the  instructions  that  shall  be  given  fail  to  enter  their 
ears ;  and  they  will  at  the  same  time  be  conducted  to  the  end  which  is 
sought  in  this  exercise,  namely  that  they  themselves  may  conceive  and 
understand." 

This  is  a  lesson  in  rhetoric,  as  well  as  in  literature  and  composition. 
It  is  concrete,  correlated  rhetoric, —  rhetoric  of  the  best  and  most 
educative  sort,  because  it  shows  it  in  its  natural  environment,  is  prac- 
tical, not  theoretical.    Quintilian  well  says, — 

"  I  venture  to  say  that  this  sort  of  diligent  exercise  will  contribute 
more  to  the  improvement  of  students  than  all  the  treatises  of  all  the 
rhetoricians  that  ever  wrote;  which  doubtless,  however,  are  of  con- 
siderable use,  but  their  scope  is  more  general;  and  how  indeed  can 
they  go  into  all  kinds  of  questions  that  arise  almost  every  day?  ...  In 
almost  every  art  precepts  are  of  much  less  avail  than  practical  experi- 
ments." 88 

Here  again,  then,  Quintilian,  true  to  his  principles,  provides  for  a 
study  of  literature  as  an  essential  part  of  his  method,  which  includes 
imitation,  practice,  and  the  exercise  of  judgment  for  the  purpose  of 
modifying,  adapting,  adding  to,  and  even  exceeding,  one's  models.  He 
shows  his  practical  bent  and  sound  judgment,  which  are  everywhere 
manifest  in  his  book,  by  advising  the  best  authors  from  the  beginning: 

"  I  would  choose  the  clearest  in  style  and  most  intelligible,  recom- 
mending Livy,  for  instance,  to  be  read  by  boys,  rather  than  Sallust, 
who,  however,  is  the  greater  historian." 

Pupils  at  this  age  are  more  likely  to  look  at  externals;  hence  the 
need  of  intelligent  care  in  selecting.  As  to  style,  he  recommends,  for 
early  years  till  tastes  are  formed,  something  between  the  crudeness  and 
dryness  of  early  writers  and  the  florid  style  of  some  of  the  later  ones. 
When  the  danger  period  is  past,  however,  he  recommends  them 

"to  read  not  only  the  ancients  (from  whom,  if  a  solid  and  manly 
force  of  thought  be  adopted,  while  the  rust  of  a  rude  age  is  cleared 
off,  our  present  style  will  receive  additional  grace),  but  also  the  writers 
of  the  present  day,  in  whom  there  is  much  merit."  The  latter  must  be 
selected  with  care.  "  Who  they  are  is  not  for  everybody  to  decide. 
We  may  even  err  with  greater  safety  in  regard  to  the  ancients;  and 
I  would  therefore  defer  the  reading  of  the  moderns,  that  imitation  may 
not  go  before  judgment."89 

88 II,  5 :  14.  89  n,  5 :  19  ff. 


154  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

(f)  To  return  to  writing,  there  are  two  general  modes  of  procedure 
in  giving  the  training  in  this  work  that  forms  his  chief  means  for 
developing  the  orator:  r.  Directions  with  illustrations  by  the  master 
before  writing;  2,  directions  (outlines)  before  writing,  with  additions 
and  emendations  after  the  writing.  He  believes  that  both  modes  have 
advantages  but  he  thinks  that, 

"  if  it  should  be  necessary  to  follow  only  one  of  the  two,  it  will  be 
of  greater  service  to  point  out  the  right  way  first  than  to  recall  those 
who  have  gone   astray   from  their   errors." 90 

(s)  Quintilian  deals  very  discriminatingly  with  "  rules."  The  pupil 
is  to  be  a  thorough  master  of  principles  and  details.  But  rules  must  not 
be  abused.  Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  make  them  an  end.  Judg- 
ment and  proportion  are  to  influence  in  the  matter.  Principles  must 
become  a  part  of  one's  own  nature,  and  one  must  consult  his  own 
personality  apart  from  instruction  and  rules.91 

"  He  must  exert  his  own  powers  and  acquire  his  own  method ;  he 
must  not  merely  look  to  principles,  but  must  have  them  in  readiness 
to  act  upon  them,  not  as  if  they  had  been  taught  him,  but  as  if  they 
had  been  born  in  him.  For  art  can  easily  show  a  way,  if  there  be  one ; 
but  art  has  done  its  duty  when  it  sets  the  resources  of  eloquence  before 
us;  it  is  for  us  to  know  how  to  use  them."92 

Practice  is  to  make  a  kind  of  intuition  for  work  that  will  obviate 
constant  reference  to  rules. 

One  of  Quintilian's  most  striking  passages,  in  which  he  criticises 
some  of  the  education  of  his  day  (easily  paralleled  in  modern,  and 
even  in  present-day  education),  puts  the  matter  very  clearly:  — 

"  In  the  meantime  I  would  not  have  young  men  think  themselves 
sufficiently  accomplished,  if  they  have  learned  by  heart  some  of  those 
little  books  on  rhetoric  which  have  been  handed  about.  The  art  of 
speaking  depends  on  great  labor,  constant  study,  varied  exercise,  re- 
peated trials,  the  deepest  sagacity,  and  the  readiest  judgment.  But  it 
is  assisted  by  rules,  provided  that  they  point  out  a  fair  road  and  not 
a  single  wheel  rut,  from  which  he  who  thinks  it  unlawful  to  decline 
must  be  contented  with  the  slow  progress  of  those  who  walk  on  ropes. 
.  .  .  The  work  of  eloquence  is  extensive  and  of  infinite  variety,  pre- 
senting something  new  almost  daily;  nor  will  all  that  is  possible  ever 
have  been  said  about  it."  93 

(h)  Akin  to  this,  but  from  a  slightly  different  direction,  is  his 
statement  as  to  the  relative  importance  of  some  of  the  elements  of 

90  II,  6:2-6. 

91 II,  13;  VIII,  Introd.,  28;  VII,  10:14.  Order,  judgment,  method 
are  three  favorite  general  rules ;  but  he  is  not  speaking  of  rules  of 
this  kind.     See  also  page  153. 

92  VII,  10:14,  15. 

«3  II,  13:15-17. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         155 

oratory.  He  recommends,  as  already  noted,  "care  about  words,  and 
the  utmost  care  about  matter."94  He  seems  to  imply  that  there  is  a 
tendency  to  emphasize  words  too  much  and  to  neglect  things  that  he 
makes  the  foundation. 

"The  best  words  generally  attach  themselves  to  our  subject,  and 
show  themselves  by  their  own  light.  .  .  .  They  are  to  be  found  close 
to  the  subject.  .  .  .  The  best  expressions  are  such  as  are  least  far- 
fetched and  have  an  air  of  simplicity,  appearing  to  spring  from  truth 
itself."  95 

In  keeping  with  this  is  the  caution  that  sentiments  spring  from  the 
subjects  themselves  and  cannot  be  manufactured  beforehand,  as  some 
seem  to  think. 

(i)  But  though  Quintilian  lays  particular  stress  upon  the  funda- 
mental elements,  and  upon  the  simple  and  practical  in  oratorical  train- 
ing, it  must  not  be  supposed  that  he  was  averse  to  embellishment,  as 
some  passages  might  seem  to  indicate.  Quintilian  paid  due  attention  to 
ornament.  Even  in  the  statement  of  facts,  which  might  seem  as  prosy 
as  anything,  he  says: 

"  I  think  that  the  statement  of  fact  requires,  as  much  as  any  part 
of  the  speech,  to  be  adorned  with  all  the  attractions  and  grace  of 
which  it  is  susceptible,"  and  the  manner  of  presentation  must  vary 
with  the  case.96 

One  can  easily  detect  a  Quintilian  touch  in  Webster's  presentation  of 
a  case,  by  comparing  some  of  the  latter's  language  with  some  of  Quintil- 
ian's  directions. 

5.  There  is  to  be  a  vigorous  preparation  for  the  Forum.  Quin- 
tilian finds  the  present  exercises  in  the  schools  tame  and  weak.  He 
would  have  his  pupil 

"  aspire  to  victory  in  these  schools,  and  learn  to  strike  at  the  vital 
parts  of  his  adversary  and  to  protect  his  own.  Let  the  preceptor  exact 
such  manly  exercise  above  all  things  and  bestow  the  highest  com- 
mendation on  it  when  it  is  displayed." 

Another  criticism  of  the  schools  is  found  in  the  suggestion  that 
school  training,  as  practiced,  is  too  confining,  that  there  is  minute 
and  careful  training,  but  that  it  tends  to  fix  in  certain  lines  that  affect 
one  badly  when  the  actual  test  comes.97 

A  similar  thought  is  enforced  in  several  passages  in  which  he  con- 
tends that  formal  training  is  not  the  sum  of  preparation  for  the  orator, 
that  training  must  be  real  and  vital,  brought  into  close  touch  with  life. 
One  must  try  the  Forum,  even  while  a  pupil.  Writing  is  the  "great 
modeler  of  excellence"  in  the  orator,  but  another  step  is  necessary  to 
reach  the  end.     Power  to  speak  crowns  the  efforts  of  a  teacher.98 

9*VIII,  Introd.,  20.  97  II,  10;  V,  12:22. 

95  VIII,  Introd.,  21-23.  98  X,  1 :  3. 

86  IV,  2:116. 


156  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

It  was  customary  for  pupils  to  learn  by  heart  what  they  had  com- 
posed and  repeat  it  on  a  certain  day.  Quintilian  disapproves  of  this, 
for  "  proficiency  depends  chiefly  on  the  diligent  cultivation  of  style." 
In  committing  and  declamation  he  recommends  "select  passages  from 
orations  and  histories,  or  any  other  sort  of  writing  deserving  of  at- 
tention." This  provides  for  memory  work,  supplies  models  of  the 
best  compositions  that  will  work  silently  in  forming  style,  and  gives 
command  of  a  fine  vocabulary  (a  three-fold  one,  consisting  of  words, 
phrases,  figures)  that  will  offer  itself  spontaneously  in  future  work." 
But  he  also  provides  for  declaiming  one's  own  compositions  occasionally, 
and  so  shows  his  good  pedagogy  by  appealing  to  adolescent  quali- 
ties.1 

Declamation  is  "  the  most  recently  invented  of  all  exercises  and  by 
far  the  most  useful.  For  it  comprehends  within  itself  all  those  ex- 
ercises of  which  I  have  been  treating  and  presents  us  with  a  very  close 
resemblance  to  reality." 

But  he  tells  us  that  the  exercise  has  degenerated  and  so  has  been  one 
of  the  chief  agencies  that  have  corrupted  eloquence.  He  would  bring 
it  back  to  its  possibilities.2 

Some  principles  of  method  for  the  final  stage  of  training. —  The 
boy  now  "  knows  how  to  invent  and  arrange  his  matter  "  and  "  has  also 
acquired  the  art  of  selecting  and  disposing  his  words."  Quintilian 
would  next  instruct  him  "  by  what  means  he  may  be  able  to  practice  in 
the  best  and  easiest  possible  manner  that  which  he  has  learned." 3 
Here  begins  the  final  instalment  of  his  training  in  the  art  of  oratory. 
This  may  perhaps  be  regarded  as  the  post-secondary  part  of  his  School 
of  Rhetoric.  Once  again  following  his  spiral  system  he  recurs  to  his 
three-fold  division  of  work  and  brings  the  spiral  one  turn  further  up. 
Here  are  some  of  his  points :  — 

(a)  Constant  reading  of  standard  literature  for  a  more  critical  study 
of  models,  in  order  to  develop  expression  and  style. 

"  For  a  long  time  none  but  the  best  authors  must  be  read  and  such 
as  are  least  likely  to  mislead  him  who  trusts  them,  and  they  must  be 
read.  .  .  almost  with  as  much  care  as  if  we  were  transcribing  them."  4 

"  While  we  receive  all  language  first  of  all  by  the  ear,"  5  he  thinks 
there  is  special  value  in  reading  and  digesting  carefully,  as  it  gives  a 
more  deliberative  mastery  of  language.  This  critical  study  of  literature 
is  to  give,  first,  words,6 — 'not  merely  vocabulary,  but  facility  in  adapt- 
ing words  to  situations, —  then  expression  and  style.  He  lays  special 
stress  on  argumentative  style,  but  not  narrowly,  as  seen  by  the  wide 
range  of  his  literature  course. 

•»II,  7:4.  4  X,  1:20. 

1 II,  7:5.  BX,  1:  10. 

2  11,  10.  6X,  i:6ff. 
3X,  1:4. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         157 

In  this  connection  comes  in  again  his  fundamental  psychological  prin- 
ciple, imitation,  broadly  interpreted. 

(b)  Development  of  judgment  and  initiative,  which  Quintilian  pre- 
sents with  striking  force.  Here  we  have  his  final  school  work  for 
developing  individuality. 

(c)  Constant  practice  in  writing,  following  a  carefully  graded 
course.7 

(d)  As  writing  is  the  key  to  excellence  his  further  pedagogical  ob- 
servations on  the  subject  will  be  of  interest.  First  then  we  note  some 
general  principles :  — 

1.  "  By  writing  quickly  we  are  not  brought  to  write  well.  By  writ- 
ing well  we  are  brought  to  write  quickly."  H 

2.  "  Let  our  pen  be  at  first  slow,  provided  that  it  be  accurate.  Let 
us  search  for  what  is  best  and  not  allow  ourselves  to  be  readily  pleased 
with  whatever  presents  itself.  Let  judgment  be  applied  to  our  thoughts, 
and  skill  in  arrangement  to  such  of  them  as  the  judgment  sanctions. 
.  .  .  The  weight  of  each  (word)  must  be  carefully  estimated,  and  then 
must  follow  the  art  of  collocation ;  and  the  rhythm  of  our  phrases 
must  be  tried  in  every  possible  way,  since  any  word  must  not  take  its 
position  just  as  it  offers  itself."9 

3.  Practice  and  method  assist  in  giving  readiness.  Method  is  work- 
ing according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject,  nature  of  the  characters  con- 
cerned, disposition  of  the  judge,  and  requirements  of  the  occasion.10 

4.  "  I  consider  that  the  greatest  facility  in  composition  is  acquired 
by  exercise  in  the  simplest  subjects.  .  .  .  But  the  great  proof  of  power 
is  to  expand  what  is  naturally  contracted,  to  amplify  what  is  little,  to 
give  variety  to  things  that  are  similar,  and  attraction  to  such  as  are 
obvious,  and  to  say  with  effect  much  on  little."  1X 

Quintilian  also  gives  some  interesting  suggestions  as  to  means,  con- 
ditions, environment,  and  mechanics  of  writing. 

1.  He  suggests  practice  in  translation  and  similar  exercises  as  defi- 
nitely helpful  for  his  main  object,  (a)  translation  from  Greek  into 
Latin  for  matter  and  art,  in  which  Greek  excels.  Such  an  exercise 
assures,  he  believes,  better  choice  of  words  and  secures  figures  for 
ornament,  "  because  the  Roman  tongue  differs  greatly  from  that  of  the 
Greeks."  12  But  Latin  excels  Greek  in  certain  things,  and  its  real  genius 
is  to  be  brought  out.  (b)  He  would  have  his  pupil  convert  Latin  into 
other  words,     (c)  He  recommends  turning  poetry  into  prose  for  ele- 

7  See  X,  3:  13.  For  grading  conf.  X,  5,  where  Quintilian  gives  some 
very  interesting  suggestions.  Order  of  development  is  seen  in  his 
statement  that  power  comes  first  by  speaking,  next  by  imitation,  and 
last  by  "  diligent  exercise  in  writing."  "  But,  ...  as  our  work  pro- 
ceeds, those  things  that  were  of  the  greatest  importance  begin  to  appear 
of  the  least."  X,  1:3,  4. 

8  X,  3:10.  10X,  3:15.  12X,  5:2,  3. 
9X,  3:5.                               X1X,  5:10,  II. 


158  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

vation  of  style,  for  training  in  exactness,  through  getting  at  the  real 
prose  equivalent,  and  for  general  broadening  of  expression  by  compar- 
ing the  two  languages  and  studying  expression-rivalry  between  them.13 
(d)  Paraphrasing  Latin  orations  helps  in  gaining  language  power, 
encourages  care  in  study  and  writing,  and  stimulates  ambition  to  excel 
the  original.14  (e)  "  It  will  be  serviceable  also  to  vary  our  own  (lan- 
guage) in  a  number  of  different  forms,  taking  certain  thoughts  for  the 
purpose  and  putting  them  as  harmoniously  as  possible  into  different 
shapes."  15 

2.  He  makes  several  practical  suggestions  as  to  the  method  of  writ- 
ing. 

(a)  He  would  have  one  be  his  own  amanuensis,  because  it  gives 
better  conditions  for  thinking  with  some  deliberation.  In  the  case 
of  dictating,  with  a  rapid  amanuensis  it  tends  to  bring  haste  and  care- 
lessness in  composing,  while  with  a  slow  amanuensis  it  obstructs  the 
course  of  thought  and  dispels  its  fire.  Besides,  it  destroys  the  privacy 
needed  for  vivid  thinking.16 

(b)  He  would  avoid  running  through  the  subject  and  getting  a  rough 
copy  and  then  revising.  Better  use  care  at  the  outset  and  then  polish, 
he  thinks.17 

(c)  For  better  connection  repeat  the  last  words  of  what  has  just 
been  written; 

"  for  besides  that  by  this  means  what  follows  is  better  connected 
with  what  precedes,  the  ardor  of  thought  that  has  cooled  by  the  delay 
of  writing  receives  its  strength  anew,  and,  by  going  again  over  the 
ground,  acquires  new   force."  18 

(d)  As  to  environment,  the  best  condition  for  writing  by  day  is 
not  retirement  amid  nature's  charms,  which  are  diverting,  but  Demos- 
thenes' secluded  place,  "  where  no  voice  can  be  heard  and  no  prospect 
contemplated  " ; —  at  night  a  closed  chamber  with  "  the  silence  of  the 
night  .  .  .  and  a  single  light  for  company."  But  one  must  also  accustom 
himself  to  "  set  all  interruptions  at  defiance  "  and  must  be  able  to  secure 
a  kind  of  privacy  for  thought  anywhere.19 

(e)  There  are  certain  principles  for  correction  which  he  likes:  — 
'(a)  After  the  writing  is  done  lay  away  the  copy,  (b)  Do  not  correct 
too  much.    There  are  some,  he  says, 

"  who  return  to  whatever  they  compose  as  if  they  presumed  it  to 
be  incorrect,  and  as  if  nothing  can  be  right  that  has  presented  itself 
first;  they  think  whatever  is  different  from  it  is  better  and  find  some- 
thing to  correct  as  often  as  they  take  up  their  manuscript,  like  surgeons 
who  make  an  incision  even  in  sound  places ;  and  hence  it  happens  that 
their  writings  are,  so  to  speak,  scarred  and  bloodless  and  rendered 


13  X,  5:4.  17X,  3:17,  18. 

14  X,  5  :  5  ff.  18  X,  3  :  6. 

»  X,  5  :  9.  10  X,  3  :  22  ff. 
16  X,  3  :  19. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         159 

worse  by  the  remedies  applied.  Let  what  we  write  therefore  some- 
times please,  or  at  least  content  us,  that  the  file  may  polish  our  work 
and  not  wear  it  away  to  nothing."  Again  he  says,  "  Nor  do  I  think 
that  those  who  have  acquired  some  power  in  the  use  of  the  pen  should 
be  chained  down  to  the  unhappy  task  of  perpetually  finding  fault  with 
themselves."  20 

(f)  Quintilian  also  brings  in  some  details  of  an  external  nature.21 
(a)  He  advises  writing  on  wax-tablets,  for  ease  in  erasing  and  for 
quickness  (unless  eyes  require  parchment),  and  he  suggests  that  some 
leaves  be  left  blank  and  that  some  space  be  left  vacant  for  jotting  down 
odd  thoughts  that  may  occur  to  us  on  other  subjects  (which  reminds 
us  of  De  Quincey's  method  of  writing),  (b)  Again  the  pupil's  tablets 
should  not  be  too  broad,  "  having  found  a  youth,"  he  says,  "  otherwise 
anxious  to  excel,  make  his  compositions  of  too  great  a  length,  because 
he  used  to  measure  them  by  the  number  of  lines,"  and  the  fault  could 
not  be  corrected  without  altering  the  size  of  his  tablets.  The  modern 
teacher  often  finds  length  usurping  the  place  of  substance. 

3.  Speaking.  The  Forum. —  But  writing  is  not  enough.  There 
must  be  speaking,  if  the  orator  is  to  have  the  needed  practical  training. 
So  Quintilian  emphasizes  a  new  series  of  declamations  "  made  similar 
to  actual  pleadings." 22  The  student  must  come  to  real  life ;  reality 
tells.  In  addition  to  what  he  has  already  provided  in  declamations 
the  young  aspirant  is  to  choose  an  orator  and  attend  on  him  carefully. 
He  is  to  be  present  at  as  many  trials  as  possible.  He  is  to  set  down 
real  cases  in  writing  and  to  handle  both  sides  of  the  question. 

"  The  young  man  will  thus  be  sooner  qualified  for  the  Forum  whom 
his  master  has  obliged  to  approach  in  his  declamation  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  reality  and  to  range  through  all  sorts  of  cases."  23 

4.  The  pupil  is  now  well  on  the  way  to  extempore  speaking,  which 
represents  the  highest  degree  of  oratorical  power.  But  there  is  an 
intermediate  step  between  his  present  status  and  that.  "  Next  to  writ- 
ing is  meditation,"  i.e.,  thinking  a  matter  out  instead  of  writing  it,  to 
be  followed  by  speaking.  But  much  practice  in  writing  gives  "  a  certain 
form  of  thinking  .  .  .  that  may  be  continually  attendant  on  our  medi- 
tations." A  habit  of  thinking  must  be  gradually  gained  by  a  method 
like  that  noted  in  his  treatment  of  memory.  The  student  is  to  gain 
such  latitude  in  meditated  speaking  that  he  will  not  be  chained  to  a 
fixed  scheme,  but  will  be  able  to  incorporate  a  "happy  conception  of 
the  moment "  without  confusing  his  plans.24 

Extempore  speaking  is  the  final  field  of  effort  for  the  orator,  who 
must  have  power  to  meet  sudden  calls  where  preparation  is  impos- 
sible. Quintilian  continues  his  description  of  the  course  of  training 
for  this  final  end  with  the  same  masterly  detail  found  throughout  his 
work.    We  may  sum  it  up  by  saying  that  by  study,  art,  and  practice 

2°X,  3:10;  X,  4:3.  22X,  5:14.  2*X,  6. 

21  X,  3 :  3i-3.  23  X,  5  :  19  ff. 


160  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

a  kind  of  intuitive  method  in  speaking  is  developed  to  relieve  the  mind 
of  pressure  and  allow  it  to  expend  its  force  constructively  so  that, 

"  while  we  are  uttering  what  is  immediately  present  to  our  thoughts, 
we  may  be  arranging  what  is  to  follow,  .  .  .  and  our  prospect  may 
advance  no  less  than  our  step," —  a  power  "  such  as  that  by  which  the 
hand  runs  on  in  writing  and  by  which  the  eye  in  reading  sees  several 
lines  with  their  turns  and  transitions  at  once,  and  perceives  what  foU 
lows  before  the  voice  has  uttered  what  precedes."  25 

But  notwithstanding  his  regard  for  extempore  speaking  he  remarks 
significantly  that  he  would  never  wish,  for  his  own  part,  to  have  such 
confidence  in  his  readiness  to  speak 

"  as  not  to  take  at  least  a  short  time,  which  may  almost  always  be  had, 
to  consider  what  he  is  going  to  say.  .  .  .  We  must  study  at  all  times 
and  in  all  places ;  for  there  is  scarcely  a  single  one  of  our  days  so  oc- 
cupied that  some  profitable  attention  may  not  be  hastily  devoted,  dur- 
ing at  least  some  portion  of  it,  .  .  .  to  writing  or  reading  or  speak- 
ing." 26 

In  connection  with  speaking  Quintilian  expresses  his  "  full  approba- 
tion of  short  notes  and  of  small  memorandum  books  which  may  be 
held  in  hand."  But  he  disapproves  of  written  summaries  as  likely  to 
weaken  memory  power.    He  forgets  nothing.27 

It  will  be  fitting  to  close  this  summary  with  two  very  pertinent  and 
admirable  suggestions  of  Quintilian  that  show  the  man :  — 

1.  "  No  portion  even  of  our  common  conversation  should  ever  be 
careless.  .  .  .  Whatever  we  say,  and  wherever  we  say  it,  should  be 
as  far  as  possible  excellent  in  its  kind." 

2.  "  As  to  writing,  we  must  certainly  never  write  more  than  when 
we  have  to  speak  much  extempore;  for  by  the  use  of  the  pen  a 
weightiness  will  be  preserved  in  our  matter,  and  that  light  facility  of 
language,  which  swims  as  it  were  on  the  surface,  will  be  compressed 
into  a  body."  2S 

Good  advice  for  modern  language  teachers. 

The  two  final  books,  which  need  not  concern  us  in  detail  here,  give 
emphasis  to  "  delivery  "  and  the  training  by  which  it  may  be  attained, 
and  to  the  higher  studies  of  the  orator, —  the  professional  side  of  his 
work, —  and  his  psychological  and  philosophical  studies. —  They  take  up 
also  a  discussion  of  different  styles  of  oratory  and  a  characterization 
of  prominent  orators. 

Quintilian  has  given  us  an  enterprising  course  of  training,  broad, 
strong,  thorough,  and  illuminated  with  a  wealth  of  detail  and  illustra- 
tion. His  great  pedagogical  treatise  has  left  its  impress  on  all  succeed- 
ing centuries. 

Brief  outlines  and  a  table  of  comparisons  follow. 

"X,  7-  27X,  7:31,  32. 

26  X,  7 :  20,  27.  2s  X,  7 :  28. 


OUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         161 

Topics  and  References. —  Cicero's  De  Oratore. 

Education  as  conceived  by  Cicero.     (General  treatment — Omits  elemen- 
tary education) 

1.  Aim:  —  Complete   Orator:  — 1:8,  26  f;   111:22. 

2.  Analysis  of  Complete  Orator. 

(1)  Character  necessary. —  II :  20,  43,  82;  III:  14,  18. 

(2)  Wise,  educated,  cultured  man.  Language  power  and  memory 
enforced:  — I:  2,  5,  6,  8,  11-16,  25,  26,  28,  32,  34,  36;  II:  1,  2, 
8,  9,  15,  16,  23,  25,  27,  51 ;  III :  13,  14,  19.  20,  25,  31  f.,  35,  49  f-,  5*- 

(3)  An  appreciation  of  relations  of  life  and  disposition  to  throw 
himself  into  the  circumstances  and  exigencies  of  life,  public,  and 
private:  —  1 :  10,    11;    11:9,    16;    III :  17. 

(4)  Special  and  technical  qualities  of  orator  needed :  —  capacity 
to  make  word  meet  time,  occasion,  person,  subject  matter.  Mas- 
ter in  public  debate  and  private  conversation  —  1 :  5,  8, 
12,  2i,  28,  31,  34;  II:  25,  27,  31-2,  58  f.,  79;  HI:  «.  12,  14,  45  f., 

49  U  51.  56  f. 

(5)  Judgment,  self-control,  confidence.  Dignified,  yet  approach- 
able ;  cosmopolitan,  yet  incisively  Roman.     Individuality. 

Summary:  Liberally  trained  man  and  professionally  trained  man 
combined,    each   brought   to   highest   perfection. 

3.  Relations  of  orator. 

(1)  Personal  ascendency :  — 1 :  4,  8,  33;  11:8.     Brutus  15,  54. 

(2)  Public  interests,  etc. :  —  1 :  8,  9,  II,  36;  11:9,  16;  III :  1-2,  17. 

4.  Subject  matter  for  training.     No  systematic  treatment.     (Grouping 

of  scattered  statements.) 

(1)  Language, —  vocabulary,  grammar,  rhetoric,  composition:  —  I: 
5,  12,  21,  31,  32,  33,  34;  11:23,  (38)  ;  III:  7,  9,  10,  11,  13,  14,  19, 

25  f.,  44  f.,  49,  51.    All  linguistic  elements. 

(2)  Literature    (formal  value;  culture  value):  — 1:5,  28,  34;  III: 

10,  T3- 

(3)  Philosophy  and  practical  psychology    (emotions)  :  —  1 :  3,  5,   12 

14,  15,  28,  51,  52;  II:  81;  111:35- 

(4)  Law,— civil  and  general:  — 1:5,  1 1,  14,  15,  28,  34. 

(5)  Music:  — 11:8;  III :  44  f. 

(6)  History:  — L5,  34;    II :  15. 

(7)  Mathematics:  —  1: 14 5  II :  15. 

(8)  Military  affairs  and  politics:  —  I:  II,  14,  15,  34- 

(9)  Delivery  (all  elements)  :  —  1 : 5,  28,  31;  11:45;  IH:ii,  12,  49  f., 
56  f. 

(10)  Everything  within  range  of  human  intelligence:  — 1:4,  5,  6,  16, 
34;  II:  I,  2,  15,  16. 

5.  Pedagogical  principles  and  method: — (General  and  unscientific.) 

a.  General  pedagogical  principles :  — 

(1)  Relation  of  art  to  power.  Helpful,  but  subordinate  to  talent: 
—  I:  23,  32;  II:  3,  7,  35;  Relation  of  talent,  art  and  diligence. 
Diligence  supreme,  II :  35. 

(2)  Careful  attention  to  individual:  —  II:  20;  III :  9. 

(3)  Inadvisable  to  separate  training  in  thought  power,  etc.,  from 
training  in  delivery  and  rhetoric :  —  III :  6,  15  ff.,  19,  20. 


162  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

(4)  Anti-specialization  :  —  III :  5,  6,  33. 

(5)  Roman  traditions  desired:  —  1:6. 
b.  Special  principles  guiding  method :  — 

(1)  Talent  (relation  to  education)  :  — 1:25,  28,  32;  11:7,  35- 

(2)  Imitation:  —  II :  21,  22,  23. 

(3)  Memory  training,    (memory-storehouse).     Practice:   mnemon- 

ics:—!: 5,34;  11:86-88. 

(4)  Relation  of  literature  to  education:  — 

a.  Subject  matter  for  imitation  and  absorption:  — 1:21,  34; 
III :  10,  19. 

b.  Training  value    (read,  turn  over,  praise,   censure,   inter- 
pret, correct,  refute):  — 1:34. 

(5)  Composition   (writing  most  excellent  modeller  and  teacher  of 
oratory)  :  —  I:  21,  33,  34;  11:23;  III:   44  f.,  52. 

(6)  Value  of  translation.     1 :  34. 

(7)  Generalization  needed.     "  Common  places,"  etc.     II :  16,  27,  30, 
31,  32,  34,  41;  111:30. 

(8)  Ability  to  see  and  discuss  both  sides:  — 1:34. 

(9)  Extempore   work   subordinate   to    deliberate   preparation    and 
dependent  on  it :  —  1 :  33. 

(10)  Humor:  —  II :  54  ff. 

(11)  Practice,  drill, —  key  to  all  efficiency:  —  1:4,  32,  33,  34;  II :  20, 

21,   22,  23,  24,  27,  35. 

All  studies  taught  from  practical  standpoint. 
Summary:  —  Alain  principles  of  method, —  talent,  imitation,  habit, 

memory,  practice;  formal  training. 
Agents  of  Education : 

Parents   and   nurse    (correct   form  of   speech).     Some  train- 
ing from  specialists ;  some  from  familiar  converse ;  some  from 
practical    observation    (Forum).     Some    from    foreign    travel 
and  study,  if  possible. 
In  his  Brutus  Cicero  shows  with  enthusiasm  his  training  from  the 
age  of    16, —  attending   the   Forum;   studying  hard    (reading,   writing, 
private  declamation);   pursuing  the  studies  of  philosophy  and   logic; 
taking  rhetorical   instruction  under   Molo,  the  principles  of  jurispru- 
dence under  Scaevola ;  trying  his  abilities  by  undertaking  at  an  early 
age  the  "  management  of  causes,  both  public  and   private " ;    foreign 
travel  with  renewed  study  of  philosophy  and  oratory;  contact  with  and 
training  under  the  most  distinguished  orators  of  Asia.     His  earnestness 
in  study  may  be  seen  from  a  statement  made  in  the  midst  of  his  de- 
scription of  his  course  of  training: — "In  the  meanwhile  I  pursued  my 
studies   of   every  kind   day  and  night  with   unremitting   application." 
Brutus,  LXXXIX-XCL. 
Here  is  one  of  his  fundamental  principles  in  work :  — 
"  Since  then  in  speaking  three  things  are  requisite  in  finding  argu- 
ment,   genius,    method.  .  .  .  and    diligence,    I    cannot    but    assign    the 
chief  place  to  genius,  but  diligence  can   raise  even  genius  itself  out 
of  dullness.  ...  It  is  capable  of  effecting  almost  everything.  .  .  .  Art 
only  shows  you  where  to  look  and  where  that  lies  which  you  want  to 
find  ;  all  the  rest  depends  on  care,  attention,  consideration,  vigilance, 
assiduity,  industry,  all  which  I  include  in  that  one  word  that  I  have 
so  often  repeated,  diligence,  a  single  virtue  in  which  all  other  virtues 
are  comprehended."    De  Or.,  II,  35'. 


QUINTILIAN'S  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         163 


APPENDIX  III 

Tabular  Summary 

I.  Roman   Ideals   in  Education  —  Quintilian. 

Aim 

Perfect  Orator, 

High  Character, 

Liberally  educated, 

Professionally  trained, 

Working  for  (state,  general  public),  and  himself. 

Practical  Ideal.     (Oratory  end  in  itself) 

II.  Subject  matter  —  Curriculum. 
(Age  Limits  Indefinite.) 


Curriculum     described     in     great 

detail.     See  preceding  appendix. 
Ante-school  period :  — 

Language — I.  Greek.    2.  Latin. 

Writing. 

General  information. 

Ethics. 
Elementary   school   period :  — 

Language  —  Writing  —  Num- 
ber (?) 

Composition,  elementary. 

General  information. 

Ethics. 
Grammar    school   period  :  — 

Grammatics :  — 

1.  Art  of  speaking  and  writ- 
ing correctly. 

2.  Literature    (culture-value; 


formal  value).  Many  sided 
study. 

3.  Very  abstract  study  of  in- 
tricacies of  grammar. 

Elementary  composition. 

Elementary  Rhetoric.  Ele- 
mentary Elocution.  Music. 
Arithmetic.  Geometry.  As- 
tronomy. 

Delivery    (elementary). 
Higher  School : 

Advanced  composition  (style; 
elaboration). 

Wide  course  in  literature. 

Philosophy, — >  physics,  ethics, 
dialectic.  Mnemonics.  De- 
livery. 

(All  learning) 


METHOD 


Talent 

Individual  attention 

Interest 

Imitation 

Habit 

Memory, —  information    storing. 

Objective  work.  Much  concrete- 
ness. 

Rules  +  practice  based  on  imita- 
tion. 

Correlation  prominent. 

Generalization    power    developed. 

Development  of  initiative. 

Most  prominent  elements  of 
method :  — 


Practice  and  drill. —  Formal  Dis- 
cipline. 

Exercises  for  developing  initia- 
tive. 

Writing, —  composition, —  the  chief 
instrument  of  training. 

Discipline 
Mild 
Firm 
Wise 
Teacher  -f-  Pupil 

Choice  of  teachers  and  attendants 
made  much  of.  Teacher  the 
best  part  of  method. 

Public  Schools  preferred. 


X 

JESUS,   TEACHER  —  NEW  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION 

Decadence  of  Roman  schools.  New  aims  needed. — As  in- 
dicated in  the  last  chapter,  the  old  Roman  schools,  which  con- 
tinued vigorous  longest  in  Gaul,  soon  lost  their  life,  because 
they  lost  their  vital  relations  with  the  life  of  the  Empire. 
Freedom  was  gone.  The  opportunity  for  individual  initiative 
had  passed,  and  there  came  what  always  must  come  when 
the  individual  and  individual  responsibility  are  sunk  in  large 
aggregations, —  decadence.  In  education,  as  already  noted, 
linguistics  occupied  the  field,  and  they  became  an  end  in  them- 
selves. Thus  form  ruled,  and  decadence  naturally  came  here, 
as  in  the  Empire  at  large.  Education  needed  re-objectifying 
in  order  to  recover  its  life;  some  new  and  vital  touch  with  the 
world  must  be  found,  and  language  as  the  supreme  element  in 
education,  according  to  Roman  pedagogy,  must  find  something 
to  do  and  something  worth  doing,  if  it  was  to  regain  its  vital- 
ity. It  had  not  long  to  wait.  A  new  order  of  life  and  thought 
with  new  aims  and  new  view-points  was  forming,  which 
eventually  gave  infinite  scope  to  old  elements  of  education  and 
suggested  new  elements. 

A  new  religious  and  educational  force. —  In  the  eighth 
century  of  Rome  and  the  twentieth  of  Israel,  according  to 
traditional  chronology,  just  as  the  ancient  schools,  typified  by 
those  of  Greece  and  Rome,  had  reached  their  zenith  in  organi- 
zation and  efficiency,  a  new  force  that  was  simply  a  new  view 
of  life  came  into  the  world.  It  appeared  suddenly,  for  it  was 
so  unlike  its  surroundings  that  its  appearance  was  like  an 
unheralded  event.  Of  course  we  can  see  a  slow  evolution 
toward  this  supreme  moment,  and  a  few  at  that  time  were  not 
unprepared  for  it ;  but  for  the  world  at  large  it  was  far  other- 
wise.    The  new  force  was  Christianity,  not  a  new  religion,  but 

164 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  165 

a  new  phase  of  religion.  It  was  to  revolutionize  education. 
Its  principles  were  to  make  a  new  pedagogy. 

It  will  contribute  toward  an  appreciation  of  its  force  and  its 
power  of  growth  to  note  the  circumstances  that  surrounded  its 
advent  and  the  fundamental  idea  that  characterized  it.  At 
any  rate  it  will  be  interesting  and  suggestive  to  do  this. 

Circumstances  surrounding  its  advent. —  The  Roman  Em- 
pire was  at  its  best.  It  was  passing  through  the  happiest,  most 
buoyant,  most  hopeful  period  that  it  saw  in  its  long  history. 
With  its  conquered  world  organized  with  a  matchless  system 
that  became  the"  model  for  all  succeeding  centuries,  both  in  state 
and  in  church,  it  was  enjoying  a  peace  that  is  aptly  described 
as  golden. 

"  No  war  or  battle's  sound 
Was  heard  the  world  around ; 
The  idle  spear  and  shield  were  high  up-hung." 

There  were  no  circumstances  distraught  and  distressing  that 
urged  men's  minds  to  seek  new  faith  and  new  religious  ideas 
for  solace  and  deliverance.  There  was  abundant  leisure  for 
new  study,  it  is  true,  and  a  new  religious  form  was  a  curiosity 
to  be  examined  with  interest  and  to  be  discussed  like  any  other 
curious  phenomenon,  and  perhaps  to  win  some  signs  of  adher- 
ence. The  religion  of  Jesus,  however,  was  apparently  too 
humble  and  suggested  too  much  self-forgetfulness,  too  much 
subordination  of  self  to  one's  work,  to  influence  the  educated 
and  the  leaders. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  proud  peoples  that  had  been  subdued 
by  Roman  arms  were  looking  for  deliverance,  for  a  liberator 
who  should  bring  them  back  to  their  pristine  vigor  and  restore 
their  autonomy.  Of  these  proud  peoples  the  Hebrews  were 
the  proudest.  But  while  they  were  looking  for  a  new  order 
their  very  ambition  made  them  scrutinize  the  ideas  and  meth- 
ods of  any  would-be  leader  with  a  discrimination  and  intensity 
that  were  very  natural,  though  they  have  been  misunderstood. 
If  the  new  ideas  did  not  square  literally  with  national  aspira- 
tions they  had  no  chance  of  being  accepted  readily.  Strong 
preconceptions  absolutely  forbade  a  spiritual  interpretation  of 
the   nation's   destiny.     A   politically    restored   Israel,   a   new 


1 66  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

realization  of  a  great  people's  prestige,  a  new  opportunity  to 
develop  initiative  were  aims  held  with  an  intensity  we  are  in 
no  danger  of  overestimating.  New  religious  ideals  had  little 
chance  in  these  conditions. 

The  very  constitution  of  the  Roman  world,  conquerors  and 
conquered,  was  thus  distinctly  unfavorable  for  any  rapid  con- 
quests by  the  ideals  of  Jesus.  The  new  ideas  must  win  by 
their  own  inherent  force  and  by  a  gradual  and  cumulative 
process. 

Two  fundamental  characteristics. —  The  two  fundamental 
characteristics  of  the  "  new  religion  "  that  disclose  at  once  its 
inherent  strength,  its  genius,  and  its  method,  by  which  it  has 
won  its  way  from  that  time  to  this,  are  its  simple  reasonable- 
ness and  its  appeal  to  the  individual.  It  aimed  first  of  all  at 
individuals,  not  at  masses.  Its  real  mission  was  to  rouse  indi- 
vidual thought  and  initiative.  Each  individual  was  thus  a 
vital  force,  and  the  cumulative  effect  was  a  multitude  of  forces 
banded  in  a  great  movement  that  was  finally  resistless.  First 
a  few  Israelites ;  then  a  few  Romans  and  Greeks ;  numbers 
grew  at  first  slowly,  then  rapidly.  But  in  it  all  the  method 
was  first  and  chiefly  individual. 

Pedagogy  of  the  Gospels. —  All  this  however  does  not 
really  explain  the  influence  and  power  of  the  new  leader.  To 
understand  his  genius  we  need  to  study  his  personal  attitudes 
and  relationships  and  his  principles  of  work.  In  other  words 
we  must  study  the  pedagogy  of  the  Gospels,  the  foundation  of 
all  modern  pedagogy.1 

1  A  brief  resume  of  a  larger  and  more  detailed  study.  It  is  based 
on  a  collation  of  more  than  four  hundred  teaching  episodes  of  Jesus. 

References  are  made  to  all  the  Gospels,  but  chiefly  to  the  three 
Synoptics  that  represent  Jesus  in  the  concrete.  This  is  a  natural  rather 
than  a  studied  plan.  It  will  be  noted  that  these  references  are  sufficient 
to  illustrate  the  points.  Allusions  to  the  Gospel  that  bears  the  name  of 
John  support  and  add  to  the  others.  This  is  true  whether  we  are  to 
believe  that,  with  dramatic  instinct  and  in  Thucydidean  spirit,  words 
supporting  the  central  fact  of  Jesus,  which  the  writer  was  trying  to 
express  in  the  fourth  Gospel,  are  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  great 
Teacher,  or  whether  episodes  in  His  life  not  gathered  by  others,  but 
perhaps  found  in  the  numerous  Christian  Gospels  current  at  the  time 
and  ascribed  to  the  Apostles,  have  been  culled  and  used  by  this  later 
writer.  (Conf.  "What  I  believe  and  Why,"  by  W.  H.  Ward,  in 
Independent,  81:207.)     We  are  here  studying  simply  the  Teacher. 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  167 

Jesus  preeminently  a  teacher. —  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was 
preeminently  a  teacher.  This  was  appropriately  so  for  two 
reasons.  First,  a  new  ideal  of  life,  a  new  type  of  religion,  a 
new  philosophy,  if  you  will,  were  to  be  incorporated  into  the 
life  of  the  world,  to  become  vital  elements  in  both  individual 
and  civic  thought  and  action.  This  required  the  function  of 
teaching  more  than  that  of  preaching;  for  the  many-sided 
training  needed  to  make  the  new  a  real  part  of  the  world's 
forces  comes  of  slow,  patient,  resourceful  teaching,  rather 
than  of  the  swifter,  briefer  and  more  intermittent  action  of 
preaching.  Second,  the  new  required  supporters,  specially 
trained  men,  intimate  with  the  author  and  expounder  of  the 
new,  devoted  to  Him,  and  capable  of  continuing  the  tradition 
of  His  life  and  principles.  Such  agents  are  the  products  of 
teaching.  So  both  the  general  ends  to  be  attained  and  the 
special  means  for  furthering  the  ends  suggested  the  teacher. 
The  attitude  of  Jesus  was  that  of  the  teacher  in  almost  every 
episode  we  recall  in  His  life.  It  is  true  that  in  a  few  cases 
we  seem  to  have  a  discourse,  but  this  is  not  inconsistent  with 
good  teaching  under  proper  conditions,  and  in  the  most  con- 
spicuous case,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  "  His  disciples  came 
unto  Him,"  which  of  itself  implies  teaching. 

His  principles. —  The  principles  taught  by  this  marvelous 
teacher,  or  implied  in  His  teaching,  were  capable  of  revolu- 
tionizing education.  His  method  of  teaching  and  His  teach- 
ing qualities  were  new  and  striking,  involving,  for  those  who 
could  interpret  them,  a  complete  change  in  pedagogy. 

It  is  sufficient  here  to  outline  these  matters  briefly,  as  the 
aim  is  not  to  analyze  exhaustively  the  pedagogy  of  the  Gos- 
pels, but  merely  to  suggest  certain  points  that  would  naturally 
affect  education  of  that  day  and  of  succeeding  days.  We 
should  formulate  then  these  two  general  principles  as  the  most 
important  in  this  connection :  — 

1.  There  is  no  hierarchy  of  souls.  All  things  are  open  to 
all.2     Education,  which  has  hitherto  been  for  the  few,  is  now 

2  His  teaching  relations  had  infinite  range.  Doctors  in  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  (Luke  2:46),  and  the  multitude  in  nature's  temple  by  the 
sea  (Mark  4);  judge  and  ruler  (Mark  5:22,  John  18:36ft.),  and  the 
outcast  subject  (Mark  23:30^.);  high  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (John 
3),  and   despised  alien    (Luke    19,  John  4);   strong,   reasoning   rabbi, 


168  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

in  all  its  grades  to  be  the  prerogative  of  all  who  will.  The 
record  teems  with  instances  in  which  He  was  approached  by 
all  classes  and  conditions  of  men,  or  in  which  His  masterful 
spirit  went  out  spontaneously  to  meet  special  educational 
needs.  There  is  not  a  single  instance  in  which  any  one  who 
took  even  a  half-hearted  learning  attitude  went  away  empty. 
2.  There  is  no  restriction  in  means.3  Each  is  to  receive 
that  which  is  most  needed  to  educate  him  for  the  Kingdom  of 
God,  which  was  the  supreme  end,  and  which,  duly  interpreted, 
is  to-day  regarded  as  the  supreme  end  everywhere.  Two  things 
are  involved  here:  —  I.  There  is  infinite  scope  for  the  cur- 
riculum. To  the  old  abstract  studies  others  of  a  different 
nature  are  inevitably  to  be  added,  if  the  principle  is  to  maintain 
its  vitality.  The  spirit  of  the  Gospels  would  welcome  the  best 
everywhere,  but  in  union  with  the  supreme  end  that  has  just 
been  referred  to.  2.  Outside  of  certain  general  principles, 
there  are  no  hard  and  fast  lines  of  method  that  each  must  fol- 
low. Christ  suited  His  material  and  His  manner  of  using  it 
to  the  mind  with  which  He  had  to  deal.  Thus  individual 
teaching  was  involved.  This  idea  was  not  perhaps  absolutely 
new,  but  it  was  presented  so  vividly  and  with  so  many  prac- 

(Luke  io:25ff. ;  Matt.  22:34ft.),  and  the  defective  youth  (Matt. 
17:14ft.);  orthodox  (Matt.  15;  Mark  12),  and  heterodox  (Mark 
12:  18  ft.)  ;  rich  young  man  (Matt.  19:  16  ft.),  and  blind  beggar  (Mark 
10:46ft.);  familiar  friends  (John  11 ;  Luke  10:38ft.),  and  strangers 
broadcast  (Matt.  11:7;  Luke  6:17;  John  12:20);  the  mature  man 
(Mark  9:17ft.;  John  3),  and  the  little  child  (Mark  10:3),— all  re- 
ceived His  definite  attention  and  teaching  influence. 

As  to  quotations  from  John  here  and  elsewhere  see  note  1. 

3  The  passages  quoted  in  the  last  note  indicate  a  wide  range  of 
means.  Jesus  approached  the  matter  to  be  taught  in  various  ways. 
For  method  and  illustrations  He  drew  from  the  Book  of  Law 
and  the  Book  of  Nature,  (Mark  12;  John  5;  Luke  6)  ;  from  past  and 
present,  remote  and  near  (Mark  2:23;  12:41  ft;  Luke  4:  16 ft. ;  13,  14, 
15,  16);  from  the  abstract  and  the  concrete  (Matt.  5,  6,  7;  Mark 
4;  John  14,  15)  ;  from  books  and  from  persons  and  things,  (Luke  4. 
6,  13,  17;  Matt.  21:16;  Mark  12;  John  10).  He  impressed  by  swift 
sentences  and  by  careful  exposition,  (note  the  condensed  epigrammatic 
beatitudes,  which  by  their  very  form  win  attention,  and  compare  them 
with  the  ultra-concrete  teaching  of  Luke  18  and  the  expository  method 
of  Luke  S)  ;  by  metaphor,  parable,  allegory,  and  choice  illustrations ; 
(Matt.  5,  13,  6:22,  13,  21;  Luke  10;  John  10);  and  especially  by 
applying  everyday  matters  and  incidents  that  were  easily  grasped 
and  were  calculated  to  clear  away  any  mystery  or  mysticism,  (Matt. 
I3:33ff-;   Mark  12:42  ft.). 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  169 

tical  applications  that  it  was  essentially  new.     There  was  thus 
infinite  scope  also  for  method. 

Qualities  of  the  teacher. —  Coming  now  to  the  character- 
istics of  the  teacher  and  his  method  in  greater  detail,  these 
qualities  stand  out :  — 

1.  Personal  Power. —  Power  that  comes  from  conscious 
union  with  the  highest  in  the  universe,  so  that  the  two  become 
one  indivisible  working  force.4  This  gives  inspiration.  As  an 
element  in  teaching  it  makes  a  trinity  of  teaching  power,  the 
teacher,  God,  the  pupil  being  united  in  the  process.  There 
is  a  reaching  out  on  one's  own  level  to  serve  human  interests, 
and  a  reaching  up.  This  is  a  right  angle  of  forces,  and  the 
resultant  is  the  diagonal  that  takes  the  teacher,  his  service, 
and  the  objects  of  his  service  to  a  plane  above  the  dead  level. 
High  aims  and  high  endeavor  result.  This  combination  is 
characteristic  of  all  the  best  teaching  the  world  has  seen. 
Called  by  different  names,  perhaps,  looked  at  in  different  ways, 
it  is  the  same  thing  fundamentally,  akin  to  the  spiritual  union 
of  the  Great  Teacher  and  God  that  is  emphasized  in  the  Gos- 
pels. Drop  this  element  in  teaching  and  we  sink  to  the  most 
perfunctory  and  mediocre  work. 

2.  Knowedge. —  Absolute  command  of  the  matter  to  be 
taught.5  Christ  knew  Jewish  life,  literature  and  tradition. 
Historical  allusions  were  at  His  command  to  illustrate  His 
points.  As  compared  with  those  who  were  supposed  to  be 
absolute  in  their  mastery  of  these  things  He  easily  showed  that 
His  knowledge  was  deeper,  broader,  keener,  and  hence  richer, 
than  that  of  any  of  them.  He  could  outquote  any  as  far  as 
concerned  accuracy  of  insight  into  His  quotation,  and  thus  as 

4  Matt.  6,  11:25,  I2;  Luke  10:21;  John  1:51,  4,  5,  8,  14:20,  16:32; 
et  passim.  Note  the  spirit  and  confidence  of  intimate  cooperation  as 
shown  in  Matt,  n,  John  10,  and  the  sublime  homing  feeling,  instinct 
with  inspiration,  that  is  inherent  in  the  always  beautiful  "  Our 
Father,"    (Matt.  6),  and   My  Father's  house,    (John   14). 

5  Matt.  5,  12,  15,  19,  22;  Luke  11,  13,  14,  15,  17;  et  passim. 

No  passages  better  illustrate  His  commanding  knowledge  and  insight 
tban  Matt.  5  and  6,  where  He  repeatedly  quotes  ("Ye  have  heard  how 
it  hath  been  said,"  etc.),  and  immediately  illumines  the  quotation  by 
the  most  appreciative  interpretation,  "  But  I  say  unto  you,  love  your 
enemies,"  etc.  Compare  also  His  absolute  mastery  of  the  spirit  and 
letter  of  the  great  Book  of  Knowledge  in  silencing  the  superficial  argu- 
ment of  a  sect  (Matt.  22). 


170  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

far  as  concerned  a  just  estimate  of  values  in  quotation.  He 
could  quote  more  aptly,  because  He  not  only  knew  more  fully 
the  points  at  issue,  but  saw  more  clearly  the  real  significance 
of  the  words  He  used.  No  surface  application,  no  quibbling 
would  He  countenance.  He  immeasurably  supassed  the  Jew- 
ish masters  in  their  own  specialty.  His  power  to  relate  a  bit 
of  learning  to  the  great  whole  of  life  broadened  and  supported 
His  knowledge,  so  that  the  narrow  application  faded  before 
the  larger  one  (see  Mark  10).  This  sweep  of  vision  placed 
Him  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  ordinary  quoter  whom  He  met. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  He  was  a 
student  of  marked  ability.  Among  the  very  few  references  to 
His  early  life  two  deal  with  this  side  of  His  nature.  I.  He 
studied  and  discussed  with  doctors.  2.  He  "  increased  in  wis- 
dom "  as  He  increased  in  stature.  We  may  infer  that  He 
gained  much  from  quiet  thought  and  reflection.  He  got  at  the 
real  heart  of  things.  In  all  this  He  was  a  model  for  teachers, 
though  in  much  of  it  He  has  had  few  followers. 

3.  Insight  into  men  and  things. —  He  had  an  equally  won- 
derful knowledge  of  men  and  things,6 — insight  we  might  better 
call  it.  He  appreciated  the  condition  in  which  He  found  a 
pupil  and  built  on  the  pupil's  power  and  interests  from  the 
point  He  had  already  reached,  and  thus  built  confidently  and 
unerringly.  The  value  of  this  knowledge  of  the  human  sub- 
ject, in  addition  to  that  of  the  culture  subject,  has  been  largely 
neglected,  or  recognized  in  a  dilettante  and  partial  manner. 
The  matter  has  received  more  attention  in  recent  years  and 
is  to-day  regarded  by  a  few  as  worthy  of  scientific  treatment 
and  as  one  of  the  most  important  conditions  of  good  teaching. 
It  is  beyond  question  that  without  this  knowledge,  which  the 
Gospels  illustrate  most  pointedly,  no  teaching  worthy  of  the 
name  is  possible.  Child-study,  or  better  pupil-study,  had  its 
origin  in  the  Gospels. 

If  it  be  true  that  Christ's  immediate  and  closest  disciples 

«Matt.  5,  11,  12,  26;  Luke  7,  10:25,  13,  15 :  John  1,  6.  8;  ct  passim. 

Note  particularly  His  judgment  as  to  John  (Matt,  n);  Nicodemus 
(John  3)  ;  Simon  (Luke  7)  ;  Herod  (Luke  13)  ;  the  Pharisees,  (Matt. 
5  and  6).  Conf.  Matt.  16  and  John  13  for  other  evidences.  Note  also 
the  various  parables  whose  very  point  depends  upon  accurate  and 
appreciative  knowledge  of  things  and  apt  application  of  this  knowledge. 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  171 

were  adolescents,  we  have  still  stronger  evidence  of  His  knowl- 
edge of  men.  Adolescents  are  most  easily  stimulated  and 
inspired  by  altruistic  principles,  and  attach  themselves  ardently 
to  causes,  when  rightly  approached. 

4.  Vital  grasp  of  the  law  of  apperception. —  The  point 
just  noted  is  closely  related  to  the  principle  that  has  some- 
times been  called  apperception.  From  the  pupil's  point  of  view 
it  is  based  on  past  experience.  From  the  teacher's  standpoint 
it  is  based  on  knowledge  of  his  pupils.  No  one  ever  used  this 
principle  or  defined  it  so  aptly  as  Christ, —  "  to  him  that  hath 
shall  be  given  .  .  .  ;  from  him  that  hath  not  shall  be  taken  even 
that  which  he  seemeth  to  have."  7  Not  merely  was  He  careful 
to  build  on  some  basal  thought  when  at  hand  ;  when  not  at  hand 
He  awakened  it.  Discussion,  which  He  frequently  excited, 
reinforced  it.  He  had  power  to  stimulate  thought  and  to  make 
it  intense.  Many  passages  finely  illustrate  the  principle,  but 
especially  the  episode  in  which  the  lawyer  came  to  Him  for 
instruction  (Luke  10), 8  for  it  impresses  two  points  connected 
with  our  topic : 

(a).  Christ  brought  vividly  before  the  lawyer,  or  rather 
led  him  to  bring  vividly  before  himself,  what  he  already  knew 
and  actively  believed, —  believed  with  an  intensity  produced  by 
the  warm  sentiment  of  Jewish  tradition  and  the  thought  of  an 
honest  and  inquiring  mind. 

(b).  Christ  did  not  give  any  new  points  till  the  man  had 
an  opportunity  to  think, —  till  he  actually  felt  and  expressed 
the  desire  for  something  more, —  and  He  skilfully  placed  him 
where  he  had  this  opportunity  to  feel,  and  feel  in  something 
more  than  a  superficial  manner. 

The  general  principle  of  apperception,  which  involves  inter- 
est, is  the  key  to  modern  pedagogy.  There  must  be  some  basis 
for  appreciation  and  interpretation,  or  nothing  results.  A  vig- 
orous germ  of  thought  that  is  one's  own  grows  under  direction, 

7  Matt.  25 :  29. 

8  Illustrations  of  this  same  principle  are  found  in  abundance.  See 
Matt.  5-8  (several  passages),  et  passim.  Some  notable  illustrations  of 
fine  apperception  building  are  His  teaching  episodes  with  Nicodemus 
and  the  woman  at  the  well,  (John  3  and  4)  ;  the  parables,  (Matt.  13)  ; 
His  cautionary  lesson  as  to  the  Pharisees.  (Matt.  16)  ;  His  interpreta- 
tion of  the  ideas  "mother  and  brethren,"  (Matt.  12:461?.). 


172  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

and  may  even  be  transformed  without  friction.  A  foreign 
thought  dies. 

Following  this  pedagogical  plan,  Christ,  by  a  natural  process, 
built  from  the  germ  of  thought  that  He  used  as  His  founda- 
tion to  constantly  broader  thought  and  principles.  He  had 
power  also  to  present  the  subject  from  many  points  of  view, 
so  that  the  truth  could  flash  from  many  sides.  Many  might 
thus  see  one  flash ;  some  would  see  many.  The  principle 
requires  such  application  when  there  is  but  one  pupil,  much 
more  when  there  are  many. 

But  there  is  a  still  higher  application  of  the  lav/  than  any  thus 
far  touched  upon.  Christ  used  it  in  His  teaching  so  extensively 
that  it  gives  tone  to  His  whole  method.  How  should  He  lead 
men  to  some  conception  of  God  —  lead  them  from  the  familiar 
to  the  mysterious  unknown,  from  the  primitive  horizon  to 
larger  and  remoter  horizons  ?  Man  must  be  interested  in  fel- 
low man,  must  live  in  him,  must  serve  him;  must  appreciate 
nature  and  feel  it ;  must  see  God  in  both  man  and  in  nature 
before  he  can  venture  intelligently  into  remoter  regions.  He 
must  go  step  by  step  apperceptively  from  the  near  to  the  remote. 
Hence  it  was  through  the  conception  of  fatherhood  that  Jesus 
led  men  to  the  Father, —  not  in  that  way  exclusively,  but  in  that 
way  conspicuously.  Have  we  not  tried  partly  to  reverse  the 
process  and  partly  to  check  the  process  at  inopportune  stages? 
Adolescence  is  religious  vantage  ground.  Christ  knew  how  to 
use  it. 

5.  Sympathetic  contact. —  Closely  associated  with  what 
has  just  been  said  is  Christ's  poiver  to  come  into  close  and  sym- 
pathetic contact  with  His  pupils,9  meeting  interest,  desire,  earn- 
estness, and  appreciating  insight  on  their  part,  whether  it  had 
to  do  with  the  main  point  at  issue,  or  with  some  related  point 
that  He  could  use  to  lead  up  to  His  object.  Interest,  sympathy, 
love,  however,  were  mingled  with  broad,  keen  thought,  unhesi- 
tating knowledge,  strong  attitudes. 

9  Matt.  6,  8,  11,  15;  Mark  10,  12;  Luke  2,  9,  13,  19;  John  II,  13; 
et  saepe.  Two  of  the  best  illustrations  are  his  contact  with  Zacchaeus 
and  his  intimate  teaching  of  Nicodemus,  (Luke  19;  John  3).  Pro- 
fessor Palmer's  first  qualification  of  an  ideal  teacher, —  an  aptitude  for 
vicariousness, —  is  shown  at  its  highest  in  Jesus. 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  173 

6.  Master  of  pedagogy  of  interest. —  A  further  word 
should  be  given  to  one  point  just  noted.  Jesus  was  a  master 
of  the  pedagogy  of  interest.10"  He  knew  how  to  use  it  and  how 
to  develop  it.  No  studied  plan,  i.  e.,  no  studied  series  of  les- 
sons, or  course,  is  manifest,  but,  by  plying  the  principle  of 
interest,  as  occasion  showed  it  to  Him  or  gave  Him  the  condi- 
tions for  germinating  it,  He  impressed  on  men  His  most  insist- 
ent thought.  Education  is  barren  and  dreary  when  we  desert 
this  principle  and  pin  our  faith  to  formal  training.  It  is  the 
binding  and  unifying  force  in  all  educational  laws  and  prin- 
ciples. We  have  wasted  time  by  seeking  and  using  something 
else  in  its  place. 

He  not  only  knew  how  to  use  interest  in  the  one  to  be 
taught;  He  recognized  interest  on  the  part  of  others.  He 
welcomed  the  third  party  in  education.11  Isolation  of  school 
would  be  farthest  from  His  thought,  if  He  were  present  in  our 
system.  Correlation  of  school  and  home  would  grow  from 
this  attitude. 

7.  The  individual,  not  the  subject,  the  center. —  All  this 
indicates  that  He  had  not  so  much  a  subject  to  teach  as  an  indi- 
vidual to  be  developed.  The  subject  is  best  served  through 
individuals.  If  a  teacher  can  choose  the  stimulus  best  adapted 
to  the  individual  and  his  needs,  can  make  the  right  impression 
on  the  delicate  nerve  mechanism  of  the  pupil,  and  thus  rouse 
self-activity  to  work  in  promising  directions  under  wise  guid- 
ance, he  has  the  conditions  for  real  educational  work.  Such 
power  had  Christ.  It  appears  everywhere  in  His  teaching  epi- 
sodes.    The  individual  is  thus  the  starting  point,  the  center, 

10  Matt.  19;  Mark  1 ;  Luke  4,  13 ;  John  4,  8,  10. 

Various  illustrations  noted  on  previous  pages  show  this.  Jesus 
projected  interest  and  developed  interest.  Everywhere  He  had  in- 
terested and  attentive  pupils.  Even  those  who  were  not  in  sympathy 
with  Him  showed  one  edge  of  interest  intensely  (Matt.  19). 

11  Matt.  9 ;  Mark  7,  8 ;  Luke  5.  No  incidents  in  the  Gospels  are  more 
interesting  than  those  that  present  Andrew  and  Peter,  Philip  and 
Nathaniel,  (John  1)  ;  parents  bringing  children  (Luke  18:  15)  ;  friends 
bringing  a  sick  friend  (Luke  5:18);  the  woman  sceptic,  after  her 
interest  was  aroused,  summoning  the  villagers  (John  4).  In  edu- 
cation not  merely  a  good  conductor  for  the  transmission  of  power 
and  interest,  but  also  interested  agents  to  bring  to  the  center  of 
power  and  interest  those  that  would  otherwise  miss  it,  are  essential 
factors,  if  ideas  are  to  reach  larger  masses  most  effectively. 


174  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

and  also  the  end  in  view.  How  different  this  from  the  average 
teaching  of  succeeding  centuries !  Again,  supposing  His 
apostles  were  adolescents,  how  finely  adapted  was  His  teach- 
ing to  that  age.  Great  inspiring  truths,  rather  than  petty- 
details,  appeal  to  the  adolescent  mind.  Stimulating  think- 
ing in  elementary  lines  suits  the  case  better  than  the  dry 
forms  of  abstract  teaching.  The  Gospels  are  full  of  these 
things. 

8.  Objective  work. —  But  another  principle  of. method  is 
needed  to  give  full  effect  to  the  principles  and  qualities  already 
noted,  to  provide  a  psychologic  point  of  contact  between  pupil 
and  teacher.  Teaching  may  slip  by  a  pupil  in  spite  of  strong 
personal  qualities,  if  the  material  of  instruction  (we  call  it 
study-content)  is  too  remote  and  abstract  or  too  extensive  and 
detailed.  To  clarify  the  teaching  of  a  new  topic  the  teacher 
must  first  of  all  get  away  from  the  abstract  and  formal.  He 
must  come  within  the  experience  and  development  of  the  pupil. 
Objective  contact  with  a  new  idea  is  absolutely  essential  to  suc- 
cess. Nothing  interests  and  stimulates  the  pupil  more  and 
clears  the  way  better  than  to  bring  him  face  to  face  with  the 
object  that  embodies  the  new  idea,  directly,  if  possible,  if  not, 
indirectly  through  some  device.  Then  the  pupil  really  thinks 
because  the  point  at  issue  is  within  his  power.  He  sees ;  he 
knows.  Jesus  was  a  master  in  objective  teaching  a  millennium 
and  a  half  before  it  took  effect  with  the  "  Reformers  "  in  edu- 
cation, who  imperfectly  caught  up  the  idea  that  the  Master 
Teacher  had  pushed  into  the  foreground  long  before.  With 
them  it  was  a  vision  to  be  worked  out  in  a  more  or  less  crude 
and  labored  way.  With  Him  it  was  an  intuition  working  itself 
naturally  and  effectively.  Everywhere  in  the  Gospels  we  find 
Jesus  introducing  something  objective  to  make  His  thought 
plain.  Many  times  since  He  pointed  the  way  method  has 
become  so  abstract,  teachers  have  so  selected  study-material 
of  education  from  an  adult  point  of  view,  have  so  far  trans- 
cended the  experience  and  development  of  pupils, —  in  short, 
have  come  so  far  from  appreciating  real  child  and  adolescent 
life,  and  have  so  far  sacrificed  objective  training  to  so-called 
formal  discipline  at  a  critical  age,  that  education  has  lost  a  very 
appreciable  part  of  its  meaning  and  effect.     Every  time  reform 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  175 

has  taken  hold  of  the  educational  process  it  has  pushed  it 
toward  the  objective  and  intensely  human  ideals  of  Jesus.12 

Illustration. —  A  special  form  of  Jesus'  objective  teach- 
ins-  is  seen  in  His  marvelous  illustrations.13  These  illustra- 
tions  through  their  simplicity  and  directness  lead  straight  to 
the  idea  and  make  it  plain.  They  both  illumine  the  thought 
that  Jesus  is  trying  to  present  and  focus  the  light,  so  that  they 
not  only  make  clear  but  excite  curiosity  to  go  further.14 
Hence  they  add  a  new  force  to  method  by  putting  thought- 
power  into  larger  action,  making  pupils  active  agents  toward 
the  larger  consummation  of  the  lesson.15 

These  principles  and  elements  of  method,  which  have  appli- 
cation in  education  without  limit  of  time  or  space,  clarify 
teaching,  because  they  open  the  windows  of  instruction  and 
let  the  light  in.  They  are  thus  the  means  of  giving  real  effi- 
cacy to  knowledge  and  the  other  teacher-qualities  that  we  have 
noticed.  They  give  easy  access  to  the  ideas  to  be  inculcated 
and  the  thoughts  to  be  stirred,  so  that  one  is  put  simply  and 
clearly  on  the  highway  to  truth;  more  than  this,  they  inspire 
initiative  and  supplementary  thinking  along  the  road. 

9.  Compass. —  But  the  compass  of  a  lesson  conditions 
the  value  of  objective  teaching.  It  may  be  so  great  that  the 
child's  activities  are  discouraged  and  lost.  It  may  be  so  small 
that  they  are  not  given  due  exercise.  It  is  noticeable  that  in 
Jesus'  lessons  there  was  a  single  point  so  simple  and  clear,  so 
free  from  hampering  and  befogging  detail,  that  it  could  not 
slip  the  mind.  And  Jesus  made  the  point  so  big,  impressive, 
suggestive,  that  it  not  only  set  thought  at  work  but  gave  it  an 
inviting  field  for  excursions  beyond  the  limits  of  the  lesson. 
What  a  rebuke  for  our  modern  school  courses,  so  overcrowded 
with  detail,  in  both  secular  and  Bible  schools, —  courses  too 
often  dictated  by  adult  rather  than  child  interest. 

Strong  closing  —  Climax. —  The  effect  of  this  fine  propor- 

12  Examples  of  objective  teaching  are  found  everywhere  in  the  Gos- 
pels. Something  objective  will  be  found  in  every  teaching  exercise  of 
Jesus.  For  prominent  examples  see  Matt.  6:28;  12:46-50;  Mark 
12:13-19;  Luke  7:36-50;  John  10. 

13  Taken  up  from  another  view-point  on  page  177. 

14  E.g.,  the  "widow's  mite"  (Mark  12);  the  well  (John  4);  wheat 
and  tares  (Matt.  13)  ;  good  Samaritan  (Luke  10). 

15  See  parables  like  "the  sower"  (Matt.  13). 


176  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

tion  observed  by  Jesus  in  the  extent  and  content  of  a  lesson 
was  enhanced  by  the  climax.  The  close  of  His  lesson  was  a 
psychological  one,  not  a  mechanical  one  that  our  method  so 
often  involves.  It  was  not  an  end,  but  a  stopping  place  for  the 
teacher  just  where  the  main  thought  was  at  its  strongest,  not 
exhausted  but  still  vital  enough  to  attract  further  activity  of 
the  pupil,  and  well  within  his  range  because  of  the  wonderfully 
vivid  and  effective  initiation  that  Jesus  had  already  supplied.19 
Given  such  an  initiation  the  mind  may  go  on  and  on.  With- 
out it  the  mind  takes  a  more  or  less  quiescent  attitude  or  comes 
to  a  distressing  state  of  bewilderment.  A  teacher  need  not 
exhaust  a  subject  to  be  thorough.  His  chief  claim  to  genius 
lies  in  his  ability  to  leave  something  for  the  pupil  to  do  by 
himself  and  to  put  him  on  vantage  ground  to  do  it.  Jesus 
shows  here  one  of  His  strongest  teaching  qualities. 

10.  Power  to  universalize. —  Power  to  universalize17  is 
conspicuous.  This  gives  His  teachings  their  broad  power  and 
applies  them  to  all  time.  His  presentation  of  general  prin- 
ciples that  carry  their  own  detailed  application  is  found  every- 
where. The  Greeks  had,  beyond  all  other  nations,  the  power 
to  generalize  and  idealize  and  then  objectify  their  ideas  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Greek  race.  No  one  ever  showed  such  power  to 
generalize  from  life  and  concretely  picture  as  is  found  in  the 
parable  of  the  pharisee  and  the  publican,  which  is  a  classic 
among  realistic  presentations  of  generalizations.18 

People  have  been  misled  because  certain  civic  and  personal 
evils  were  not  even  mentioned,  much  less  scored  by  Jesus. 
This  is  a  striking  tribute  to  the  universality  and  immortality 
of  His  teachings.  He  developed  and  enunciated  principles 
that  would  destroy  every  specific  evil  known  or  to  be  known 
by  man. 

16  See  the  story  of  the  laborers  (Matt.  20)  ;  the  Lawyer's  question 
(Luke  10:  25-37). 

17  Matt.  5,  8;  Luke  II,  18;  John  4;  et  saepe. 

18  This  is  a  generalization,  not  a  particular  case,  as  its  form  may 
suggest  to  a  hasty  observer.  We  may  compare  also  other  incidents 
equally  striking  —  the  exposition  of  neighborliness  in  the  "Good  Sa- 
maritan" episode,  (Luke  10)  ;  of  the  principle  of  giving  in  the  "wid- 
ow's mite",  (Mark  12),  an  example  of  swift  seizing  of  a  chance  in- 
cident and  turning  it  into  a  most  vivid  lesson.  Again  note  his  dis- 
crimination in  service  seen  in  the  tribute  scene,   (Matt.  22).     Matt.  6 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  177 

No  quibbling. —  It  is  also  to  be  said,  taking  a  little  dif- 
ferent point  of  view,  that  pettiness  had  no  place.  Christ  struck 
at  the  real  matter  and  discarded  the  side  issues.19  Educa- 
tional padding  here  receives  no  encouragement,  but  this  does 
not  apply  to  accessories  that  forward  the  pedagogical  process 
and  lend  it  vividness  and  interest. 

11.  Language  power. —  Another  quality,  one  that  has 
been  the  ambition  of  teachers  for  ages,  was  supreme  in  Christ, 
though  it  has  received  but  partial  recognition.  This  was  His 
language  power.20  In  the  first  place  we  are  attracted  by  the 
clarity,21  the  deliberate  force,  and  the  perfect  form  of  His  lan- 
guage. This  in  itself  is  a  rare  accomplishment.  Again  we 
marvel  at  His  power  of  illustration.  Illustrative  language  is 
found  in  great  variety  and  shows  marvelous  command.22  His 
illustrations  themselves  are  unique.  They  are  familiar,  but  a 
freshness  of  insight  accompanies  them  that  makes  them  new. 
Sometimes  they  argue  their  own  point,  so  aptly  are  they  chosen. 
It  is  important  also  to  notice  that  He  uses  series  of  illustra- 
tions that  give  the  means  of  reaching  many  different  types  of 
mind  at  once.23  They  are  always  to  the  point,  and  the  point  is 
a  pivotal  one.  But  this  is  only  one  side  of  language  power. 
We  find  besides  a  frequent  use  of  epigrammatic  or  apothegmatic 
language,24  which  arrests  attention  and  excites  thought,  and 
thus  is  an  important,  though  nowadays  too  little  used  instru- 

and   similar   chapters   contain   various   striking   generalizations   put   in 
striking  form. 

19  See  His  impatience  at  quibbles,  trifles,  and  superficialities  of  His 
time,  and  His  swift  striking  at  the  main  issue  in  Matt.  19 :  16  ff. ;  23  :  25  ; 
Luke  18:  18.  He  had  no  use  for  mere  externals,  the  "  outside  of  the 
platter,"  the  wordy  prayer  and  the  prayer  of  words,  the  trifling  de- 
tails of  rules  that  miss  the  real  point,  the  "Lord,  Lord";  He  sought 
the  heart  of  things.     See  Matt.  7:21,  Matt.  25,  etc. 

20  In  the  Gospels  passim.  A  good  illustration  is  Matt.  6,  Luke  12. 
This  appears  even  in  translation.  The  original  always  enhances  a 
language  characteristic. 

21  This  was  partly  because  He  spoke  in  the  "  vernacular."  This  does 
not  mean  that  He  spoke  in  the  dialect  of  the  people  merely,  but  that 
he  used  their  simple,  everyday  vocabulary. 

22  E.  g.,  Luke  10,  18,  et  saepe.  His  lessons  are  filled  with  illustra- 
tions of  various  types  and  from  various  sources, —  simile,  metaphor, 
parable,  and  plain  illustration. 

23  See  Matt.  13 ;  Mark  4. 

24  See  Sermon  on  the  Mount;  also  Matt.  20:16.  Illustrations  occur 
everywhere. 


178  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

ment  in  teaching.  Again  there  is  a  frequent  recurrence  of 
suggestion  25  in  place  of  definite  statements,  which  also  is  a  part 
of  good  educational  economics.  It  gives  scope  for  reflection, 
an  opportunity  for  personal  development  of  germinal  thoughts, 
and  so  produces  intellectual  and  spiritual  fibre. 

Dialectic  is  a  special  type  of  language  power.  It  was  a 
method,  a  typical  educational  contribution,  of  the  best  educated 
race  of  the  time,  as  we  have  seen.20  But  Jesus  had  a  dialectic 
swifter  and  keener  than  any  yet  seen.27  His  power  of  ques- 
tioning and  of  logical  investigation  was  such  that  He  could 
strike  at  once  the  main  point  and  make  it  clear.  No  round- 
about or  antagonistic  series  of  steps  was  needed.  One  or  two 
questions  sufficed  and  yet  they  upheaved  a  truth  that  was  clear 
and  powerful, —  no  trivial  truth,  but  a  massive  one.  It  is  well 
suggested  that  He  asked  "  great  questions."  Minor  interroga- 
tions did  not  encumber  nor  overshadow  those  that  went  to  the 
heart  of  things. 

And  Jesus  had  command  of  beautiful  language.  He  could 
be  poetical  in  the  finest  way.28  He  could  reach  truth  by  the 
swift  inspiration  of  esthetics  and  rhythm,  as  well  as  by  the 
more  deliberate  method  of  prose. 

This  language  power  left  little  room  for  formal  didactic 
teaching,  and  immeasurably  added  to  His  teaching  power. 

12.  Breadth  —  adaptation. —  There  is  another  important 
quality  that  is  essential  for  a  strong  teacher.  Christ  showed 
that  He  commanded  all  the  relations  of  life,  and  so  was  a  mas- 
ter in  influence.  In  this  He  strikingly  contrasts  Himself  with 
the  partial  qualifications  of  some,  probably  many,  teachers. 
He  could  give  and  receive.  He  could  command  and  obey. 
Service  was  a  central  thought  in  is  creed.29  He  was  thus  a 
fully  developed,  well-rounded  teacher.30 

25  A  good  example  of  suggestion  is  John  2 :  io.  Perhaps  a  better  one 
is  Matt.  6 :  22.  Various  good  examples  are  found  in  Matt.  5,  6,  7,  and 
in  Luke  10 :  30  ff. 

26  See  Chapters  V  and  VI. 

27  Matt.  6;  12:  11;  Luke  10:36  ("Which  one  of  these  three  thinkest 
thou  was  neighbor?")  ;  13:  15;  14:  5;  John  7:  23;  21:  15. 

28  E.  g.,  "Consider  the  lilies,"  Luke  12:27. 

29  See  Luke  2 ;  Matt.  25. 

30  We  here  analyze  Christ  as  a  teacher.  This  best  makes  Him  a 
leader  and  an  example. —  brings  Him  into  closest  touch  with  teachers. 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  179 

13.  Poise. —  Nothing  is  more  noticeable  than  the  quali- 
ties that  may  be  summed  up  in  the  term  poise,31  and  nothing  in 
the  teacher's  equipment  is  so  valuable,  so  telling  in  all  the  deal- 
ings of  education.  Poise  not  only  gives  time  to  work,  allow- 
ing educational  forces  to  perform  their  legitimate  functions, 
but  it  removes  unfortunate  conditions  that  are  the  source  of 
friction  and  destroy  relations.  It  thus  tends  to  avert  ill-con- 
sidered action  and  views.  It  gives  thought  free  play.  It  puts 
everybody  and  everything  in  a  position  to  realize  the  best.  It 
recognizes  the  educational  value  of  difficulty  and  opposition. 
In  this  quality  are  gathered  calmness,  dignity,  confidence  that 
begets  confidence,  and  a  pedagogical  patience  that  is  careful 
not  to  excite  premature  development,  a  patience  that  regulates 
the  pace  of  events  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  case. 
Compare  Christ's  calmness  with  the  flurry  and  perturbation 
of  His  disciples  on  different  occasions.32  Even  when  He  seems 
to  break  His  calm  we  find  the  same  power, —  a  kind  of  delibera- 
tion that  finds  and  emphasizes  the  vital  point  at  issue,  rather 
than  excites  a  surface  indignation.  The  former  wins,  the  lat- 
ter loses,  whether  in  social  contact  or  in  school  discipline. 
There  is  also  a  noticeable  absence  of  the  spectacular,  a  constant 
sinking  of  self  below  the  truth  that  the  self  is  presenting,  an 
attitude  that  gives  real  power  to  truth  and  to  teaching.33 

14.  Dynamic  qualities. —  Devotion,  persistence,  fearless- 
ness, earnestness  gave  point  and  force  and  steadiness  to  all  His 

Such  analysis,  however,  is  consistent  with  all  theology,  and  it  does 
not  detract  from,  nor  offer  any  impediment  to,  analysis  from  any  other 
view-point. 

31  Matt.  4 ;  Luke  4 ;  John  2 ;  et  passim.  It  is  perhaps  best  expressed 
in  the  parable  of  the  tares,  "  Let  both  grow  together  till  the  harvest," 
because  Jesus  here  not  only  shows  teaching-calm  and  poise,  but  per- 
haps quite  as  significantly  indicates  His  belief  in  the  necessity  of  diffi- 
culty and  opposing  ideas  in  developing  power.  Poise  is  again  shown 
in  the  poetic  passage,  Matt.  6 :  25.  ff. 

32  Compare  the  impulse  to  vengeance  on  the  part  of  James  and  John 
with  Jesus'  calmness  (Luke  9:54);  the  perturbation  of  the  chosen 
pupils  under  stress  of  tempest  with  the  self  possession  and  naturalness 
of  Jesus  (Mark  4:350".).  Compare  the  striking  passages  of  Luke 
22 :  50  ff.  and  Mark  14 :  50  ff.,  describing  scenes  accompanying  the  ar- 
rest of  Jesus,  and  note  how  this  calmness  endured  in  times  of  great- 
est stress,  when  others  gave  way  entirely.  The  climax  came  in  the 
final  scene  with  its  "  Father,  forgive  them." 

33Matt.  6:4;  i2:i4ff. ;  16:20;  26:39. 


180  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

teaching,  or  rather  they  were  its  sureties.  Examples  of  these 
traits  occurred  frequently.  An  appreciative  study  of  them 
should  banish  from  teaching  all  superficialities,  all  temporizing, 
all  compromising,  and  give  to  it  a  rich  genuineness  consonant 
with  its  high  ends. 

15.  Various  passages  in  the  Gospels  tell  us  of  solitary 
hours  and  temporary  withdrawal 34  in  out-of-the-way  places. 
In  spite  of  His  effort  to  secure  quiet  meditation,  however, 
crowds  sometimes  gathered  and  even  camped  in  these  places 
for  the  sake  of  teaching  and  help,  and  because  of  the  attraction 
of  Christ  himself, —  His  magnetism,  to  use  a  rather  hackneyed 
and  ill-defined  term.  Later  monastic  and  hermit  life  made 
permanent  what  was  occasional  and  temporary  with  Christ. 
Jesus'  work  was  emphatically  in  the  midst  of  life,  and  the  soli- 
tary hours  were  tributary  to  it. 

16.  Impressive  personality. —  The  qualities  thus  briefly 
enumerated,  with  others  more  or  less  definable,  were  elements 
in  a  strong  and  striking  personality  that  drew  and  influenced. 
Personality  is  not  a  simple  thing  or  a  single  power,  though  it 
may  be  regarded  substantially  as  such  by  those  who  do  not  stop 
to  analyze.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  not  necessary  or  desirable 
for  those  who  are  being  influenced  to  analyze  at  the  moment. 
They  need  only  to  feel.  But  if  one  is  to  develop  power, 
analysis  is  necessary  in  order  to  direct  effort  productively. 
Analysis  here  reveals  more  impressively  the  personality  of  the 
teacher.  Personality  wins.  It  supports  and  renders  effective 
other  teaching  qualities. 

Implications. —  To  summarize  some  of  the  suggestions 
of  this  study  it  appears  that  new  forces  were  prominent,  calcu- 
lated to  change,  1,  the  form  of  schools;  2,  the  curriculum  and 
method;  3,  the  aim  and  the  scope  of  the  school's  ministries. 
We  have  potentially  universal  education.  We  have  potentially 
also  a  broad  and  generous  curriculum.  In  the  direction  of 
method  the  pedagogical  principles  involved  bring  in  the  best  of 
modern  method  and  tend  to  emphasize  the  true  direction  of 
education, —  from  the  human  subject  to  the  culture  subject,  thus 
making  the  pupil,  rather  than  any  "  study,"  the  center  of 
thought.     We  find  also  substantial  ground  for  urging  the  study 

34  Matt.  4,  14;  Mark  6;  Luke  4,  9;  John  8.    Examples  are  frequent. 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  181 

of  the  psychology  of  childhood  and  adolescence.  The  peda- 
gogy of  the  Gospels  enforces  scholarship  as  well, —  knowledge 
of  the  full  meaning  and  possibilities  of  the  subject  to  be 
taught,35  including  a  knowledge  of  its  psychology.  This  gives 
us  a  third  psychology.  Interpreting  the  educational  principles 
of  Jesus  generously  and  genuinely  we  have  all  modern  educa- 
tion. This  is  literal  fact,  not  fancy,  to  one  who  will  take  the 
pains  to  examine. 

Partial  application  of  His  principles  in  the  period  follow- 
ing Jesus. —  Now  it  was  natural,  because  evolutional,  that 
at  first  the  new  forces  should  be  but  partially  appreciated  and 
imperfectly  interpreted, —  that  only  one  side  of  man's  spirit 
should  be  made  the  object  of  effort,  and  that  the  curriculum 
should  be  correspondingly  narrow.  Pedagogy  would  be  still 
less  adequately  developed.  Old  methods  would  be  less  obnox- 
ious than  old  matter.  Men  have  generally  thought  more  of 
the  what  than  of  the  hoiu.  The  most  available  educational 
method  that  suggested  itself  would  be  likely  to  be  seized  upon. 
Men  had  little  inclination  to  think  along  pedagogical  lines. 
Still  less  did  they  care  to  study  men.  To  know  that  man  had  a 
soul  and  that  an  institution  was  to  be  subserved  and  forwarded 
was  enough.  Many  of  the  plain  suggestions  of  the  Gospel  as  to 
pedagogy  were  therefore  to  wait  long  for  just  recognition. 

Even  this  partial  interpretation  slow. —  The  conquest  of 
even  the  narrow  interpretation  of  the  new  ideas  was  slow. 
The  first  step  will  be  the  subject  of  the  next  chapter.  But 
before  taking  up  this  topic  it  will  be  well  to  glance  at  the  atti- 
tude of  the  Fathers  who  were  a  connecting  link  between  the 
old  and  the  first  settled  forms  of  the  new. 

Pedagogy  of  the  Christian  Fathers. 

The  fathers  looked  both  ways. —  It  would  be  natural  to 
expect  that  the  Christian  Fathers  would  look  both  ways  in  edu- 
cation. Old  associations  would  cling,  but  new  religious  affilia- 
tions and  new  inspiration  would  color  them  and  in  time  modify 
them. 

35  This  is  a  three-fold  knowledge, —  knowledge  of  the  facts  compre- 
hended in  a  subject,  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of  a  subject,  and  ability 
to  adapt  a  subject  to  different  ages  and  conditions. 


182  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  Fathers  were  regularly  educated  in  the  old  Greek  and 
Roman  schools,  which  were  found  everywhere  in  the  Empire. 
They  studied,  in  secondary  and  higher  work,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
literature,  dialectics  and  philosophy,  music,  geometry,  astron- 
omy, natural  philosophy,  architecture  and  jurisprudence. 
Rhetoric  was  particularly  prominent.  Sophist  ideas  that 
originated  in  Greece  were  still  found.  In  Roman  schools  and 
schools  that  followed  Roman  tradition,  Quintilian's  pedagogy 
was,  of  course,  still  a  power. 

Policy  of  the  Fathers  as  to  learning  —  The  new  learn- 
ing.—  The  majority  of  the  Fathers,  particularly  those  from  the 
East  and  from  Alexandria,  kept  alive  the  old  studies,  but  they 
added  to  them  studies  connected  with  the  new  religion,  to  which 
they  showed  great  devotion  and  in  which  they  were  often  volu- 
minous writers.  Much  has  been  made  of  the  opposition  of 
Jerome,  Tertullian,  and  Augustine  to  classical  literature,  and 
they  certainly  did  express  their  disapproval ;  but  at  the  same 
time  it  must  be  noted  that  these  same  Fathers,  or  some  of  them, 
may  be  used  also  in  support  of  the  old  learning  36  guided  and 
regulated.  One  of  the  strongest  indications  of  opposition  is 
found  in  "  Apostolic  Constitutions  "  of  the  fourth  century  in 
such  directions  as  this : 

"  Refrain  from  all  the  writings  of  the  heathen,  for  what  hast  thou 
to  do  with  strange  discourses,  laws,  and  false  prophets,  which  in 
truth  turn  aside  from  the  faith  those  that  are  weak  in  understand- 
ing." 

The  interdiction  does  not,  however,  seem  to  have  been  fully 
carried  out  in  the  lives  of  a  majority  of  the  Fathers. 

Results. —  The  old  curriculum  was  still  in  great  favor 
among  the  educated  classes  generally,  and  was  not  rejected,  or 
was  definitely  favored,  by  a  majority  of  those  most  intimately 
concerned  with  leadership  in  the  new  order  of  religion.  But 
while  decided  opposition  to  classical  literature  showed  itself  in 
strong  places,  so  that  "  Pagan  "  learning  in  time  came  under 
the  ban  and  Christian  Latin  literature  came  to  the  front,  too 
much  has  been  made  of  this  disfavor.  Other  causes  con- 
tributed to  this  retreat  of  learning.     The  ban  was  official,  but 

30  West,  Alcuin,  17. 


NEW  PRINCIPLES  183 

was  probably  not  universally  active,  nor  was  it  a  finality.  The 
votaries  of  classical  learning  never  ceased,  and  substantial 
schools  continued  the  Roman  tradition  to  more  favorable  times. 
New  forms  of  education. —  But  a  study  of  the  lives  of  the 
Fathers  37  indicates  plainly  that  new  educational  forms  were 
coming  in,  and  that  new  schools  were  germinating.  The  terms 
catechetical,  catechumen,  reader  in  Christian  service,  and 
church  teacher  occur  and  are  very  significant.  There  are  many 
references  also  to  ascetic  and  monastic  life  that  was  gaining 
great  influence  and  making  rapid  headway.  The  first  mon- 
astery in  the  West  was  established  by  St.  Martin,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century. 

37  See  Farrar's  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  which  is  full  of  allusions  to 
new  forms  and  ideas  and  full  also  of  evidence  that  the  Fathers  got 
the  best  in  the  old  Greek  and  Roman  Schools.  The  feelings  of  the 
Fathers,  whether  in  opposition  or  favor,  or  in  alluring  memories,  are 
not  difficult  to  find  or  appreciate. 


XI 

SECONDARY    EDUCATION    IN    THE    EARLY    CHRISTIAN    CENTURIES 

Tendencies  of  the  new  era. —  The  spirit  of  the  new  era 
on  which  we  are  entering  tended  to  revolution  and  reorganiza- 
tion, not  of  a  cataclysmic  sort,  but  quiet,  steady,  patient,  per- 
vasive, in  accord  with  its  motto  of  peace.  Relations  of  capital 
and  labor,  ideals  and  practices  of  professional  life,  principles 
of  national  progress,  ideas  of  philanthropy  —  society  as  a 
whole, —  were  to  feel  and  respond  to  the  new  order.  The 
theory  and  practice  of  education,  as  the  fundamental  agency 
for  working  out  these  changes,  must  themselves  catch  the  spirit 
of  the  new  force.  This  was  the  work  of  the  first  Christian 
centuries. 

Conditions  and  forces,  i.  The  Roman  Grammar  School. 
—  The  conditions  are  plain.  On  the  one  hand  we  have  the 
Roman  Grammar  school,  which  had  adopted  and  adapted  all 
of  Greek  education  that  appealed  to  the  West,  in  matter, 
method,  and  ideals.  It  was  a  school  marvelously  perfect  for 
the  times  in  organization,  method,  and  form.  It  was  dis- 
tinctively Roman,  charged  with  Roman  genius,  a  notable  illus- 
tration of  Roman  executive  power, —  one  of  the  type  schools 
in  the  history  of  education.  It  was  the  embodiment  of  the 
national  conscience  and  ideals,  the  darling  of  national  solici- 
tude and  pride.  As  the  institutes  of  law  became  a  model  for 
Christendom  in  one  direction,  the  "  institutes  of  education,"  as 
embodied  in  the  Grammar  School,  became  a  model  for  schools 
of  succeeding  ages.  In  Rome,  not  in  Greece,  was  the  parent 
school  of  the  West,  as  we  have  already  noted. 

Spirit  of  the  new. —  On  the  other  hand  there  was  the 
spirit  of  the  new  times  whose  ideal  was  growth,  not  acquisi- 
tion, service,  not  domination,  deeds,  not  words,  gentle  but  per- 
sistent persuasion  from  within,  not  oratorical  brilliance  and 

184 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CENTURIES         185 

marshalled  argument  from  without, —  though  it  was  capable 
of  using  and  tempering  all  means. 

Thus  two  ideas,  that  of  the  old  Greco-Roman  schools,  and 
that  of  the  pedagogy  of  the  Gospels,  were  at  work,  in  part 
influencing  one  another,  in  part  antagonistic. 

Results  of  the  educational  revolution. —  Two  courses  are 
open  to  revolutionary  ideas,  first,  the  making  of  new  forms  with 
which  to  propagate  the  new,  free  from  all  contamination  with 
the  old ;  second,  the  use  and  transformation  of  the  old.  As  is 
always  the  case,  the  new  times  at  first  took  both  these  courses, 
according  as  they  appealed  to  groups  and  individuals.  Thus 
we  have  new  forms  of  schools,  and  old  forms  modified  by 
new  ideas. 

Various  classes  of  people  as  related  to  the  new  religion. — 
It  is  very  interesting  to  note  the  variety  and  kind  of  variety 
that  existed  in  these  transition  years.  The  very  growth  of  the 
new  faith  made  variety  inevitable.  As  Christianity  became 
popular  men  attached  themselves  to  it  with  varying  degrees  of 
intensity.  Some  entered  seriously  and  with  full  purpose  into 
the  new.  Some  affiliated  in  greater  or  less  degree  with  the 
Christians,  but  attached  themselves  more  lightly  to  the  new 
religion.  Outside  of  these  were  a  wavering  class  and  a  class 
as  yet  untouched. 

Educational  tendencies  of  different  classes. —  Some  of 
these  classes  clung  to  the  old  school  through  sentiment  and 
habit.  Some,  with  self-denying  will,  abandoned  habit  and 
developed  a  sentiment  for  a  distinctly  new  school.  This  applies 
to  both  form  and  matter,  particularly  matter.  Method  is  im- 
personal and  adapted  to  new  as  well  as  to  old ;  the  most  that 
could  be  done  here  was  to  simplify,  or  to  revert  to  a  more 
primitive  type.  The  early  Christians  did  both.  Elaboration 
was  foreign  to  their  ideal. 

New  subject  matter  for  the  schools. —  As  to  material  for 
study,  the  Christians,  using  old  tools  in  new  quarries,  produced 
something  adapted  to  the  occasion.  The  Christian  faith  became 
a  recognized  branch  of  study,  and  a  new  literature  on  Chris- 
tian subjects  came  into  existence.  It  possessed  much  literary 
merit  because  produced  by  scholarly  Christian  Fathers  who 
had  received  their  training  in  the  old  classical  schools.     It  was 


186  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

adapted  to  both  elementary  and  secondary  instruction  and 
speedily  found  its  way  into  the  curriculum  in  place  of  classical 
literature,  or  in  conjunction  with  it.  Alexandria,  the  greatest 
center  of  learning  and  investigation  in  the  early  centuries  of  our 
era,  even  gave  the  new  schools  a  Christian  philosophy.  Its 
library  encouraged  learning.  Its  great  school  was  the  melting 
pot  of  Oriental  and  classical  religions  out  of  which  came  Neo- 
Platonism  and  Gnosticism.  Naturally  enough,  it  was  in  Alex- 
andria that  Christianity  became  a  subject  of  philosophical  in- 
vestigation. A  Christian  and  quasi-Christian  philosophy  was 
thus  at  hand  to  fill  the  place  of  that  which  Quintilian  had  in  his 
curriculum,  and  to  exercise  the  minds  that  craved  this  form  of 
thinking. 

Seven  classes  of  schools. —  The  whole  situation  would  in- 
dicate that  the  interaction  between  the  old  Grammar  School, 
with  its  firm  place  in  the  affections  of  all  educated  people,  and 
the  new  Christian  forces  that  were  rapidly  supplying  new  mate- 
rial to  give  tone  to  old  curricula,  must  have  been  vigorous  and 
prolific.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  transition 
period  and  to  serve  the  various  shades  of  Christian  thought 
and  purpose,  we  find  seven  different  classes  of  schools,  besides 
several  sub-classes.  Only  the  most  typical  will  be  described 
here.1 

The  Grammar  School  type  persisted. —  The  genius  of  the 
schools  of  early  Christian  centuries  was  Quintilian.  The  old 
Grammar  School,  or  the  Grammar  School  manned  by  Chris- 
tian teachers,  was  probably  the  most  conspicuous  school  of  the 
time.  This  was  natural  and  inevitable.  Schools  of  this  type 
were  particularly  numerous  and  active  in   Italy  and   Gaul.2 

1  A  full  list  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 

2  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  Roman-Hellenic  schools  were 
still  scattered  over  the  provinces.  Most  of  them  had  died  out  by  the 
time  of  Augustine's  death.  Intellectual  activity  continued  longest  in  the 
East.  Roman  traditions  remained  vigorous  longest  in  Gaul.  Laurie, 
Rise,  and  Const,  of  Univ.,  13-19. 

It  has  been  customary  to  speak  of  the  Roman  schools  as  ending  or  be- 
ing suppressed.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  them  never  ended ;  they 
grew  and  changed  with  the  times. 

In  the  time  of  Cassiodorus  secular  letters  were  still  taught  by 
lay  teachers,  probably  the  successors  of  the  Grammarians  of  the  Em- 
pire. There  is  evidence  that  such  teachers  continued  through  the 
Middle  Ages.     Patherius,  about  900  A.  D.,  writes,  that  in  addition  to  those 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CENTURIES         187 

Very  early  the  new  Christian  forces  took  possession  of  these 
schools  and  school  forms  of  ancient  education.  They  did 
more, —  they  gave  new  life  through  new  ideas  and  a  stronger 
purpose.  For  a  time  Julian  succeeded  in  revising  the  teach- 
ing force  in  these  schools  and  banishing  Christian  teachers ;  but 
this  was  a  mere  episode  in  their  history  and  could  not  long 
check  the  tendency  of  the  times ;  the  past  could  not  be  rehabili- 
tated.3 

New  school  agencies.  The  Catechumen  and  Catechetical 
schools. —  But  the  new  religious  and  social  awakening  must 
have  a  special  agency  of  its  own  for  studying  and  settling  its 
fundamental  ideas.  It  secured  this  in  the  Catechumen  school, 
planned  first  for  adults  and  later  for  children.  Its  funda- 
mental purpose  was  instruction  in  the  typical  principles  and 
forms  of  Christianity ;  even  when  the  elements  of  secular  let- 
ters were  taught,  it  was  doubtless  for  the  furthering  of  the  new 
doctrines.4  The  new  times  secured  a  special  agency  also  in  the 
Catechetical  school,  a  high  school  established  for  the  same 
general  purpose  as  the  Catechumen  school.  It  was  proposed 
to  make  converts  the  intellectual  equals  of  others.  The  new 
school  agency  appealed  to,  and  gave  scope  to,  culture  activities 
of  intellectual  centers,  beginning  at  Alexandria.  It  was  a  close 
copy  of  Greek  schools  rather  than  Roman,  but  was  pervaded 
by  a  Christian  spirit  and  purpose.5  In  time  it  yielded  to  Roman 
influence  and  took  the  form  of  the  Roman  Grammar  school, 

who  attended  Episcopal  and  Monastic  schools  there  were  those 
who  "  Apud  quemlibet  sapientem  conversati  sunt."  Clark,  Latin  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  Renaissance,  54  f. 

a  In  prohibiting  Christians  from  teaching  rhetoric  and  grammar, 
Julian  said,  that  men  who  exalted  the  merit  of  implicit  faith  were  unfit 
to  claim  the  advantages  of  science.  He  hoped  to  paganize  those  who 
attended  his  revised  schools  and  to  insure  the  inadequate  training 
of  teachers  who  were  taught  elsewhere,  thinking  that  an  inferior  class 
of  teachers  incapable  of  training  Christian  students  to  meet  the  learn- 
ing of  the  grammar-school  youth,  would  take  the  place  of  Christian 
teachers  who  under  previous  educational  organization  "  possessed  an 
adequate  share  of  the  learning  and  eloquence  of  the  age."  See  Gib- 
bon,  Decline  and   Fall  of   Rom.   Emp.,   Chapter  XXIII. 

4  Note  the  "  first  Christian  common  school,  established  by  Protogenes, 
in  the  second  century,  to  teach  reading,  writing,  texts  of  Scripture,  and 
psalm  singing.     Seeley,  Hist,  of  Educ,  105. 

5  Davidson,  Hist,  of  Educ,  121  ft\,  gives  a  very  interesting  and  ap- 
preciative account  of  this  school.  A  genuine  Socratic  method  was 
prominent. 


188  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

reduced  in  scope  and  thoroughness,  and  modified  by  Chris- 
tianity. 

Domestic  education. —  The  uncertainty  that  has  been  re- 
ferred to,  the  dissatisfaction  with  prevailing  schools,  and  a  feel- 
ing of  danger  from  them,  seem  to  have  suggested  another  solu- 
tion of  the  educational  problem, —  domestic  education.  Many 
a  Christian  home  made  sure  of  Christian  influence  by  home 
instruction.6 

Three  types. —  Most  of  the  schools  of  the  period  differed 
in  form,  in  organization,  and  sometimes  even  in  purpose. 
They  may,  however,  be  classified  under  three  types:  —  i,  The 
old  Roman  type ;  2,  the  Roman  type  modified  by  Christian 
studies  and  teaching,  with  its  correlative  type,  the  Catechetical 
school ;  3,  the  purely  Christian  school,  seen  in  the  Catechumen 
school  with  simple  religious  curriculum. 

A  coming  school. —  But  there  was  a  fourth  type  that  be- 
gan to  be  visible  on  the  educational  horizon,  and  for  this  reason 
was  not  so  characteristic  of  the  age  as  were  the  others.  In  its 
elementary  form  it  was  similar  to  other  schools  of  the  time  in 
organization  and  purpose ;  in  its  secondary  form  it  was  an 
impoverished  counterpart  of  other  secondary  schools.  It  was 
distinguished  from  others  more  particularly,  however,  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  absolutely  removed  from  the  contaminating 
influence  of  the  world,  being  a  part  of  a  community  life  sepa- 
rated from  ordinary  social  contact  and  devoted  to  religious 
cultivation  and  contemplation.     It  was  the  cloister  school. 

Method. —  The  general  method  of  the  old  secondary 
schools  remained  in  schools  of  the  first  and  second  types ;  but 
dictation  and  memorizing  were  coming  to  be  more  exclusively 
used  and  there  was  a  tendency  to  narrow  the  old  learning  and 
to  condense  it  in  epitomes,  as  seen  in  books  that  became  the 
standards  for  many  centuries.7  Schools  of  the  third  type 
brought  in  the  catechetical  plan,8  which  has  played  such  an 
important  part  ever  since,  so  far  as  the  church  has  regulated 
school  pedagogy.     It  was  not  new,  but  was  given  a  new  devel- 

6  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24:523. 

7  See  Chap.  XII. 

8  Question  and  answer  method.  Here  was  the  beginning  of  the 
catechism. 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CENTURIES         189 

opment.  It  had  been  merely  a  subordinate  device,  but  it  now 
assumed  great  prominence,  in  fact  was  reduced  to  a  science.9 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Catechetical  school,  which  belongs  under 
type  two,  and  in  a  way  also  under  type  three,  gave  new  promi- 
nence and  force  to  the  "  Socratic  Method." 

Aims. —  Aims  varied  correspondingly.  The  Grammar 
schools  maintained  the  practical  aim  of  Ouintilian  without  the 
opportunity  for  practical  application  that  was  offered  by  larger 
political  conditions  of  the  earlier  day.  As  already  noted,  the 
aim  was  reduced  to  a  striving  for  formal  rhetoric  and  literary 
form.iq  Side  by  side  with  it  was  the  Christian  aim  of  religious 
instruction  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  Christian  ideal ; 
but  soul  culture  was  as  yet  rather  a  formal  matter,  so  far  as 
schools  were  concerned. 

Period  characterized  as  formative. —  All  in  all  we  have  a 
formative  period  in  which  new  forces  were  contending  with 
old.  The  contrasts,  as  well  as  the  exigencies,  of  the  time  may 
be  realized  by  considering  on  the  one  hand  the  work  of  a 
Julian,  who  thought  he  could  make  things  move  backward  by 
the  fiat  of  a  monarch  and  could  thus  weaken  a  vigorous  force 
which  had  many  points  of  appeal,  and  on  the  other  hand  the 
work  of  an  Origen,  who  brought  the  highest  culture  to  Chris- 
tian teaching  and  followed  the  broad  course  of  the  best  schools 
of  his  day ; 1X  or  again  by  considering  the  classical  fervor  of  a 
Jerome  or  an  Augustine  12  in  connection  with  Christian  devo- 
tion, at  one  period  of  their  lives,  and,  at  another,  their  renuncia- 
tion (for  others)  of  the  same  classical  delights  and  their  recom- 
mendation of  devotion  to  the  new  alone ;  or  by  noting  the 
extended  education  of  most  of  the  Christian  Fathers  in  all  that 
the  old  schools  could  give,  as  compared  with  the  meagre  instruc- 
tion of  the  rank  and  file  of  the  Christians  who  came  under  their 
influence,  receiving  as  they  did  little  more  than  religious  instruc- 
tion ;  and  finally  by  contrasting  the  education  and  the  practice 
of  Fathers  like  St.  Basil  with  those  of  Tertullian.13     Out  of 

8  See  West's  Alcuin  for  an  example  of  elaborate  catechetical  work. 

10  Dill.  op.  cit.,  Book  V.     See  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  13. 

11  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24 :  5,  19-20. 

12  See  also  Farrar's  Lives  of  the  Fathers  (Jerome),  and  Augustine's 
City  of  God. 

13  Farrar's  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Teuffel's  Latin  Literature,  et  al. 


iqo  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

this  mixed  period  of  contrasts  and  contradictions  must  come  a 
crystallization  of  some  sort.  Its  nature  can  be  divined  by 
noticing  which  forces  are  most  virile  and  most  popular.  Real 
life  was  with  the  new  ideas.  The  old  order  now  had  little 
more  than  forms  whose  force  had  departed. 

Summary. —  The  early  Christian  ages  therefore  defined 
certain  ideals  and  aims  of  education,  but  produced  no  distinc- 
tive secondary  school  that  endured.  They  were,  however, 
working  vigorously  at  the  educational  problem.  A  mixed  and 
unsettled  period  it  was,  in  which  men  were  adapting  old  and 
new  to  new  needs  and  ideals  in  various  ways  and  for  various 
purposes.  The  old  was  declining;  a  new  school  form  was  in 
sight  which  was  almost  to  clear  the  field. 

APPENDIX 

SCHOOL  FORMS   IN  EARLY  CHRISTIAN   CENTURIES 

1.  Old  Roman  schools. —  Municipal  schools  supported  by  the  munici- 
pality, or  by  the  municipality  and  imperial  government  together.  Finally 
the  state  was  the  sole  authority.  They  were  public  schools.  There  is 
some  reference  to  jobbery  in  spending  public  money.  These  schools 
persisted  for  a  long  time. 

2.  Private  schools  similar  to  I. —  Supported  by  subscriptions  and 
managed  by  private  authority, —  at  least  till  schools  became  a  part 
of  the  state. 

They  had  the  old  Quintilian  curriculum  with  more  emphasis  on  literary 
study,  including  grammar  and  rhetoric.  Other  studies  were  subordi- 
nated more  than  in  Quintilian's  plan  and  used  for  illustrative  purposes. 
Quintilian's  curriculum  was  fresh  and  related  vitally  to  life,  real 
and  filled  with  reality.  But  the  curriculum  now  was  largely  a  matter 
of  simple  culture,  with  less  connection  with  public  life  and  no  relation 
to  free  political  development.  Life  and  ideals  were  in  Rome's  past. 
There  was  a  perverted  idea  of  history ;  no  interest  in  current  history ; 
no  interest  in  nature  or  investigation ;  little  concern  for  the  fate  of 
the  Empire,  which  was  constantly  threatened  and  constantly  suffering. 
Education  was  a  form  and  its  substance  was  form,  gained  through  imita- 
tion of  the  past.  Fresh  creation  was  not  an  object  of  effort.  Roman 
schools  were  soon  in  a  decadent  state  verging  toward  extinction.  They 
remained  vigorous  longer  in  Gaul  than  in  the  Empire  generally.  (There 
was,  however,  a  freer  and  more  vigorous  intellectual  life  in  the  church. 
There  was  interest  in  history  here,  but  of  a  rather  narrow  scope.) 

Method:  —  The  old  Grammar  method  described  by  Quintilian,  but 
more  concerned  with  form.  It  loaded  the  memory  and  strengthened 
the  imitative  power,  instead  of  stimulating  thought  and  imagination.     It 


THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CENTURIES         191 

involved  grammatical  drill  and  drill  in  composition,  brilliant  rhetorical 
exercises,  but  no  scientific  inquiry. 
These  schools  may  be  divided  again  into 

A.  Grammar  schools  taught  by  adherents  of  old  Roman  ideas. 

B.  Grammar  schools  taught  by  Christians  (often  perhaps  of  Class 
2).  Christian  studies, —  patristic  literature,  etc., —  were  probably  added 
to  the  course,  at  least  in  some  cases. 

3.  Catechumen  school:  — 

a.  For  adults,  to  train  them  for  the  church. 

b.  (later).  For  children,  offering  reading,  writing,  christian  studies. 
Method  :  —  Catechetical,  memorizing. 

About  200  a.  d.  Protogenes  established  a  school  in  which  reading, 
writing,  Scriptures,  and  psalm-singing  were  taught.  It  was  called  the 
first  Christian  common  school.  (Many  such  schools  may  have  been 
established.) 

4.  The  Catechetical  school  of  Alexandria,  where  the  trivium  and 
geometry,  with  Christian  studies, —  patristic  literature,etc. —  were  taught. 
There  was  also  a  higher  school.  Method:  —  Catechetical  and  dialectic; 
lectures;  also  memorizing.  This  school  was  established  with  the  idea 
of  educating  churchmen  in  a  broader  way,  and  giving  them  a  training 
similar  to  that  of  the  old  school,  but  added  Christian  studies.  It 
all  had  in  view  a  fuller  grasp  of  the  new  faith,  and  centered  in  it.  It 
was  necessary  to  prepare  churchmen  to  meet  their  opponents  with  an 
equal  training  and  on  their  own  ground. 

Origen,  a  famous  teacher  here,  made  much  of  natural  history,  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy,  all  leading  up  to  philosophy.  Geometry  with  him 
included  geography.  Physics,  or  natural  philosophy  (a  kind  of  nature 
study),  he  called  physiology.  These  studies  were  probably  intended 
for  higher  education,  but  they  included  some  secondary  features. —  His 
method  was  catechetical,  dialectic,  analytic,  experimental. 

The  catechetical  school  appropriately  began  at  Alexandria.  It  spread 
rapidly,  especially  at  Episcopal  seats.  It  continued  for  ages,  though 
under  another  name. 

5.  Christian  private  schools,  having  the  old  curriculum  with  new 
Christian  studies.  They  were  taught  by  the  best  graduates  of  the  old 
schools.  We  find  also  itinerant  teachers.  Again  each  home  was  to  be 
a  school. 

6.  School  of  Cassiodorns.  He  set  up  a  claustral  or  boarding  school 
about  500  a.  d.,  imitating  Eastern  monasteries.  It  offered  the  trivium, 
with  arithmetic,  music,  and  Christian  studies.  He  wrote  text-books  for 
the  trivium  and  for  the  new  studies.  There  was  a  higher  curriculum 
also.  Method:  —  Probably  the  old  grammar  method;  in  new  subjects, 
learning  from  dictation  and  exercise  of  "  holy  memory." 

{School  of  Eusebius. —  Probably  a  school  of  high  grade,  for  it  pro- 
duced many  noted  men.  It  must  have  had  a  combination  of  the  old 
curriculum  and  the  new.) 

7.  Some  pre-Benedictine  Monastic  schools  were   established   early 


i92  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

(about  400  A.  D.),  especially  by  Cassian.  Basil,  an  Eastern  monk,  gives 
as  his  ideal  a  simple  elementary  curriculum  with  Christian  studies, — 
catechism,  Scriptures,  church  ritual,  and  the  wonderful  events  of  Scrip- 
ture in  place  of  the  old  mythology.  Method :  —  Committing  to  mem- 
ory; prizes;  frequent  questions.  According  to  the  rule  of  Basil  monks 
were  bound  to  "  give  asylum  to  orphans,  to  receive  children,  and  train 
them,  as  well  as  to  instruct  all  who  came  to  them,  in  the  catechism, 
the  Scriptures,  and  church  ritual."  Monastic  schools,  however,  had 
a  comparatively  small  development  now.  The  curriculum  generally  was 
very  limited,  bare,  and  narrow.  But  it  must  be  looked  at  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  times  and  with  appreciation  of  existing  conditions. 


XII 

SECONDARY   EDUCATION   FROM   THE   SIXTH    CENTURY   TO  THE 
EARLY   UNIVERSITY   PERIOD 

The  ascetic  life  —  Psychologic  explanation. —  From  early 
times  the  idea  had  existed  that  holiness  was  best  attained  by 
some  form  of  ascetic  life,  which  removed  from  distracting 
secular  thoughts  and  gave  opportunity  for  peaceful  contempla- 
tion of  the  ideal.  This  idea  had  taken  possession  of  sensitive 
souls,  who  were  open  to  spiritual  influences  and  inspired  by 
high  religious  emotions,  and  of  those  who  were  attracted  by 
transcendental  ideas.  Those  of  the  first  class  were  far  the 
more  numerous.  To  the  second  class  belonged  such  thinkers 
as  Plato,  who  advocated  withdrawal  from  the  world  for  the 
highest  attainment  of  power  (later  to  be  used  for  the  public), 
and  Pythagoras,  who  formed  a  community  devoted  to  an  ideal 
life.  Neo-Platonism,  which  combined  Greek  and  Hebrew  ele- 
ments —  Greek  intellectuality  and  the  strong  religious  feeling 
of  the  Hebrews  —  reinforced  the  motives  for  ascetic  life. 

Practical  reasons. —  But  to  the  psychological  causes,  the 
state  of  the  times  added  others  of  a  practical  nature.  The 
unrest  due  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  world-empire  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  hardships,  cruelty,  tyranny,  and  wide-spread 
vulgarity  and  depravity  of  the  early  Christian  centuries  gave 
strong  incentives  to  withdraw  from  it  all  and  to  lead  a  holy  life 
free  from  the  turmoil  and  moral  contagion  of  the  day.  Again, 
the  belief  that  the  dissolution  of  all  things  was  coming  and  a 
second  advent  was  at  hand  gave  greater  impressiveness  to  such 
thoughts  as  have  been  referred  to.  In  an  important  class  of 
the  community  they  minimized  the  existing  order  of  things 
almost  to  the  vanishing  point 1  and  made  efforts  for  spiritual 
salvation  the  logical  as  well  as  the  practical  mode  of  utilizing 
human   activity.     The  various   motives  of   course   influenced 

1  Rashdall,  Univ.  of  Med.  Europe,  1 :  30-2. 

193 


194  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

men  in  different  degrees;  some  of  them  probably  did  not  oper- 
ate at  all  in  many  cases.  Perhaps  the  strongest  force  was 
found  in  the  opportunity  for  a  secure  and  peaceful  organiza- 
tion of  life,  when  other  organizations  were  going  down. 

Growth  of  monastic  orders. —  Communities  of  recluses,  or 
monks,  carefully  and  systematically  organized,  thus  came  into 
existence,  and,  with  the  rapid  diffusion  of  the  monastic  idea, 
grew  into  a  compact  "  order."  Naturally  various  orders  arose, 
each  distinguished  by  a  characteristic  set  of  rules  or  by  some 
striking  principle  of  life,  whether  social  or  industrial.2  The 
orders  were  attached  to  the  growing  church  organization  which 
was  steadily  developing  a  system  that,  for  compactness  and 
articulation  of  parts,  rivalled  the  Imperial  System  of  secular 
Rome,  and  eventually  took  its  place.  The  monastic  spirit  was 
wide-spread,  but  it  had  its  richest  development  in  the  West, 
and  it  is  there  that  we  are  most  concerned  with  it. 

Favorable  conditions  for  study. —  There  were  evidently 
time  and  opportunity  for  learning  in  these  monastic  communi- 
ties, and  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  learning  went  on,  even 
when  the  studies  involved  were  under  the  shadow  of  popular 
and  official  disapproval.  We  must  believe  that  many  a  monk 
became  the  possessor  of  all  the  best  of  the  old  culture.3  It  may 
be  a  question  whether  official  disapproval  was  not  always  more 
or  less  perfunctory.  A  contemplative  life  was  especially  favor- 
able to  study.  The  monks  and  ecclesiastics  absorbed  and 
transmitted  the  thought  and  culture  of  the  old  schools.  In 
fact,  in  the  destruction  of  the  old  order  of  things,  they  were 
the  only  media  for  this  transmission.  But  for  the  majority  it 
was  only  a  fraction  of  the  old  that  was  needed ;  the  rest  of  it 
was  neglected  or  actually  shunned  under  the  conditions  that 
have  just  been  noted. 

A  new  school. —  The  monks  however  did  not  merely  give 
themselves  to  study  for  their  own  pleasure.  Schools  for  others 
and  varied  training  in  the  arts  of  life  naturally  came  to  be  a  part 
of  their  work.     They  were  industrial  and  intellectual  mission- 

2  Appendix  I. 

8  See  West,  Alcuin ;  Compayre  Abelard ;  Mullinger  Schools  of 
Charles  the  Great,  and  History  of  Univ.  of  Cambridge  from  the  Earliest 
Times;  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ.  24:343^. ;  Augustine,  City  of  God; 
et  al. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      195 

aries  for  their  environs.  They  must  train  boys  to  take  their 
places  in  the  religious  community  and  thus  keep  up  the  order. 
To  this  they  added  the  elementary  training  of  outsiders  or 
"  externes."  This  training  in  many  cases,  or  at  any  rate  at  cer- 
tain times,  was  probably  reduced  to  a  minimum.4  As  a  rule  it 
concerned  itself  chiefly  with  that  which  was  necessary  for 
church  service.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  often  included  large 
elements  of  a  liberal  education.5 

The  school  public. —  Most  of  those  who  aspired  to  even 
the  rudiments  of  an  education  were  those  destined  for  ecclesi- 
astical vocations.  But  the  schools  were  open  to  and  received 
at  different  periods  a  considerable  number  of  others.6  Only  a 
very  small  part  of  the  people,  however,  received  even  the 
simplest  education.7 

Libraries. —  But  the  schools  of  the  monks  touched  educa- 
tion in  another  manner.  They  gathered  and  maintained  the 
libraries  of  the  day,  and  through  exchanges  reinforced  one 
another's  literary  treasures.  These  libraries  affected  education 
by  creating  a  literary  atmosphere,  however  attenuated,  and  by 
supplying  culture  material. 

Cathedral  schools. —  Monastic  Orders  were  not  alone  in 
developing  religious  and  educational  organization.  As  the 
great  cathedrals  came  to  play  a  part  in  religious  life,  a  similar 
school  organization,  but  with  more  of  a  lay  and  secular  element, 
grew  up  in  connection  with  them.  Here  an  ecclesiastic  com- 
munity was  the  counterpart  of  the  monastic  community  and  it 
was  as  carefully  organized  as  the  latter.  As  the  cathedral 
community  extended  its  organization  parish  schools  of  more 
modest  form  and  scope  arose,  associated  in  organization  with 
the  cathedral.8 

General  character  of  the  new  school. —  These  religious 

4  Ziegler,  Geschichte  der  Ped.,  28  ff. 

5  The  library  at  York  is  significant  as  to  the  scope  of  learning.  See 
Mullinger,  Sch.  of  Chas.  Gt.,  60  ff.,  74  ff. ;  Univ.  of  Camb.,  7  f . ;  Laurie, 
op.  cit.,  24  f .  See  also  references  given  later  as  to  exceptional  schools. 
On  the  rise  of  this  new  school  generally  see  Mullinger,  Sch.  of  Chas. 
Gt,  24,  29  ff.,  32. 

6  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  27  ff. 

7  Nohle,  Germ.  Sch.  Sys.,  in  Rept.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Educ,  1897-8, 
Vol.  I,  8-1 1 ;  Howard,  Evol.  of  the  Univ.,  4. 

8  West.  op.  cit.,  55. 


196  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

schools,  which  have  been  briefly  referred  to  and  which  in  gen- 
eral had  the  same  aim  and  the  same  form,  had  crystallized 
out  of  the  mass  of  forms  which  the  last  period  presented.  The 
monastic  and  cathedral  schools  arose  naturally  and  combined 
with  the  elements  that  preceding  centuries  had  defined  religious 
studies  and  an  insistent  religious  ideal.  They  gave  the  control 
of  education  to  the  religious  orders  and  the  clergy.9 

But  old  Roman  schools  did  not  cease. —  The  confusion 
and  upheavals  attending  the  incursions  of  new  tribes,  who 
had  fresh  vigor  and  new  ideas,  but  were  almost  devoid  of  what 
the  empire  knew  as  culture,  and  the  frowns  of  the  Church  on 
the  old  learning  had  the  effect  of  discouraging  the  old  schools 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  seriously  declined.  It  has  been 
said  and  re-said  that  they  came  to  an  end.  But  the  idea  that 
so  powerful  and  deep-seated  an  educational  force  could  be 
entirely  suppressed  is  beyond  credence.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  many  of  these  old  schools  continued  under  new  auspices, — 
with  curriculum  augmented  by  new  Christian  studies  and  with 
new  spirit,  it  is  true,  but  yet  distinctly  traceable,  so  that  forms 
and  methods  could  be  easily  identified  with  those  of  Roman 
times.1**  The  church  took  over  these  schools,  it  did  not  destroy 
them ;  and  it  moulded  them  according  to  the  new  ideas.  This 
Greco-Roman  tradition  persisted  in  Italy  and  Gaul,  and  in 
the  Irish  school  (whether  within  or  without  Ireland  itself). 
But  the  prominence  of  the  old  curriculum  did  not  occur  at  the 
same  time  in  these  three  sections.  Now  it  was  conspicuous  in 
Gaul,  now  in  the  Irish  schools,  and  finally  in  Italy.  It  per- 
sisted more  uniformly  in  the  latter  country,  though  more  con- 
spicuously in  the  later  period.  Greco-Roman  education  had 
been  overshadowed  by  other  forms  of  education  in  most  places, 
but  it  was  left  comparatively  unmolested  in  Italy. 

Two  classes  of  the  new  schools. —  The  political  turmoil 
of  the  period,  the  belief  in  a  not  distant  end  of  all  things  that 
existed  in  greater  or  less  intensity  down  to  the  tenth  century, 
the  seclusion  and  the  narrow  ideals  of  schools,  which  we  have 

9  De  Montmorency,  Intervention  of  the  State  in  Eng.  Educ,  8,  35-6, 
41.  56,  59,  66  ff.,  et  at. 

10  Davidson,  Hist,  of  Educ,  153,  156;  Mullinger,  Sch.  of  Chas.  Gt, 
32;  Univ.  of  Camb.,  11;  West,  op.  cit.,  28-9;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1:26-7. 
See  also  Clark,  op.  cit.,  54.    Conf.  Chap.  IX. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      197 

noticed  in  previous  paragraphs,  served  to  reduce  education  in 
general  to  low  terms.  From  some  accounts  of  the  period  one 
would  be  led  to  believe  that  learning  became  well  nigh  extinct. 
But  it  was  never  so  weak  as  has  been  represented,  though  in 
its  rhythmic  movements  it  reached  low  points  at  different  times 
and  in  different  sections.11  Great  schools  in  many  centers, 
York,  Rheims,  Tours,  Fulda,  Corby,  St.  Gall,  and  others,  tided 
the  tradition  over  periods  of  general  apathy  and  neglect. 
These  were  the  schools  whose  roots  touched  Quintilian  soil.12 

Charlemagne  and  Alfred. —  It  was  in  one  of  the  low  pe- 
riods when  education  was  in  a  partial  eclipse,  that  Charlemagne 
took  up  the  cause,  and  by  his  vigor  and  his  organizing  genius 
did  much  to  make  teaching  universal  and  to  give  it  new  life 
and  purpose.  He  devised  a  system  of  education  that  included 
elementary,  secondary,  and  higher  grades.  He  restored  the 
old  ideal  and  curriculum  and  gave  place  to  the  vernacular.  He 
increased  the  efficiency  of  teaching.  He  added  a  civic  purpose 
to  education,  which  had  previously  been  devoted  exclusively 
to  religious  ends.  A  little  later  Alfred  of  England  took  up  a 
similar  work,  but  one  of  smaller  scope.  It  is  probable  that 
these  two  reformers,  at  least  Charlemagne,  helped  to  revive  the 
older  Greek  and  Roman  educational  ideals.  On  the  whole, 
they  did  not  create,  they  simply  revived,  borrowed,  extended, 
but  they  borrowed  broadly.  The  Palace  School  that  each  King 
fostered  at  his  court  was  but  the  rehabilitation  of  some  older 
form.  Charles  found  some  of  his  teachers  in  Italy,  and  some 
in  England,  which  was  perhaps  the  brightest  spot  for  learning 
at  the  time.  Alfred  in  turn  borrowed  from  the  Continent,  for 
meantime  his  country  had  suffered  a  relapse.13 

It  is  not  necessary  to  take  special  account  of  these  episodes 

11  See  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  and  old  Chronicles, —  William  of  Malmesbury, 
62,  88  ff.,  119-20,  125;  Florence  of  Worcester,  66-8.  See  also  Mullinger, 
Sch.  of  Chas.  Gt.,  2>7\  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1:27,  29,  30,  32  ff. 

12  See  Laurie,  op.  cit.;  West,  Alcuin,  174,  and  chapter  VIII  generally; 
Mullinger,  op,  cit.;  Dill,  Roman  Civ.  in  the  Last  Cent,  of  the  West.  Emp. ; 
Clark,  op.  cit.,  22  ff.,  etc. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  we  are  making  a  new  type  of  school. 
These  were  all  Monastic  or  Cathedral  schools,  only  with  a  stronger 
Greco-Roman  flavor  than  others. 

13  Mullinger,  op  cit.,  35-9,  69-70.  Conf.  De  Montmorency,  op.  cit., 
4-6;  Florence  of  Worcester,  Chron.,  68. 


198  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

in  tracing  the  development  of  the  secondary  school.  They  are 
but  parts  of  the  larger  monastic  educational  movement  through 
which  both  worked.  The  latter  may  be  summarized  in  such 
a  way  as  to  give  us  the  typical  school  of  the  period.  It  is  the 
less  necessary  to  specialize  here  as  both  these  movements  were 
in  a  way  short  lived,  depending  on  the  lives  of  the  two  reform- 
ers and  receding  in  the  vicissitudes  and  confusion  of  the 
unsettled  times  that  followed.1*  Yet  the  influence  of  the  lim- 
ited movement  permanently  raised  the  level  of  education. 

The  ideal. —  The  general  ideal  of  the  schools  of  this  period 
was  preparation  for  church  service,  either  as  a  "  religieux,"  or 
as  a  freer  member  of  an  ecclesiastic  community.  A  subsidiary 
aim  was  a  certain  training  in  Latin,  the  language  of  the 
Church,  and,  for  some  centuries,  of  the  people.  Often  results 
were  merely  formal  and  brought  into  play  memory  rather  than 
intellect ;  if  words  could  be  repeated  or  sung  it  was  sufficient. 
The  Roman  Forum  had  passed.  Pulpit  oratory  was  a  thing 
of  the  future,  in  any  sense  calculated  to  modify  the  work  of 
the  schools.  There  was  no  alluring  goal  therefore  to  tempt 
pupils  or  teachers  to  spontaneous  and  enthusiastic  training  in 
literature  and  expression.  There  were  some  conspicuous 
exceptions,  it  is  true,  but  we  are  now  concerned  with  the 
average. 

Aims. —  In  the  typical  schools  of  the  period  Latin  was 
the  fundamental  subject  and  in  one  direction  or  another 
monopolized  attention.  All  knowledge  came  through  Latin. 
It  was  an  instrument  of  thought,  rather  than  a  means  of  disci- 
pline at  this  time.  As  Latin  was  so  important  in  church  life 
it  would  be  fair  to  say  that  the  subsidiary  aim  perhaps  came 
to  seem,  in  a  way,  the  paramount  aim  of  the  schools. 

Another  subsidiary  aim  was  of  a  practical  nature.  It  had 
to  do  in  the  first  place  with  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  copying, 
essential  for  one  of  the  most  typical  industries  of  the  monas- 
teries, that  of  preserving  and  multiplying  famous  literary 
works   of   the  past.     Again   it   found  expression  in  training 

14  It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  at  least  some  of  the  schools 
fostered  by  Charlemagne  continued  to  flourish  during  the  dissolution 
of  the  Empire.  Adams,  Civilization  during  Mid.  Ages,  164;  Rashdall, 
op.  cit.,  1:30;  Conf.  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  165-66;  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  6  ff . ; 
Clark,  op.  cit. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      199 

"  clerks  "  (in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  term),  for  the  monk 
was  the  letter-writer  and  notary  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  door 
of  the  church,  Rashdall  says,  came  to  mean  the  door  to  pro- 
fessional life  in  Northern  Europe.15 

The  curriculum. —  These  aims  define  the  common  curric- 
ulum of  the  new  schools,  some  of  which,  as  we  have  seen,  were 
old  schools  made  over,  some  of  them  new  schools.  We  evi- 
dently have  Latin,  or  grammar,  as  it  was  called,  as  the  leading 
and  absorbing  subject.  Next,  because  of  its  practical  bearing 
on  the  school  aims,  and  because  it  was  a  primitive  element  of 
education,  came  music.  Number,  or  arithmetic,  was  necessary 
only  so  far  as  it  related  to  the  "  computus."  Then  there  was 
document-writing  and  letter-writing,  to  serve  the  needs  of  the 
religious  community  and  the  general  public.  A  smattering  of 
rhetoric  from  the  Latin  text  might  be  added,  at  least  in  some 
cases. 

Text  books. —  A  history  of  education  might  be  written 
from  a  study  of  the  typical  text-books  of  the  various  epochs, 
for  they  show  both  theory  and  practice  in  education,  the  former 
through  fore-words  and  notes,  the  latter  throughout  the  books. 
Fortunately  we  are  able  to  examine  the  favorite  text-books  of 
mediaeval  education,  or  rather  the  favorite  reference  books,  for 
text-books  were  scarce,  or  practically  non-existent,  except  as 
they  were  made  by  pupils  from  dictation.  These  books  were 
summaries,  or  "  bald  epitomes,"  of  past  learning,  or  a  part  of  it. 
Men  cared  principally  for  information,  for  the  bare  facts,  not 
for  investigation,  new  thought,  or  even  richness  of  detail. 
Past,  present,  and  future  were  identical  as  far  as  knowledge 
was  concerned.  The  past  dominated,  giving  all  and  ruling 
all.  In  grammar  the  books  dealt  with  definitions,  classifica- 
tions, and  schemes,  not  with  living  language.  In  geometry 
they  wanted  the  facts,  not  the  process.  Thus  mere  compends 
met  the  need  and  perpetuated  the  common  ideal.  They  were 
practically  the  whole  substance  of  instruction  to  the  tenth 
century.16 

The  books  most  in  favor  in  mediaeval  education  were  these : 

15  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II :  696-7,  707.  Conf.  1 :  26  and  Mullinger,  Univ. 
of  Camb.,  209  (note). 

16  West,  op.  cit.,  22-27;  Mullinger,  Sch.  of  Chas.  Gt,  69. 


200  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Orosius,  Historiarum  adversus  Paganos,  Libri.  VII. 

Martianus  Capella,  Nuptise  Mercuri  et  Philologiae  (Marriage 
of  Mercury  and  Philology). 

Donatus,  Ars  Grammatica  (Grammar). 

Priscian,  Grammatica. 

Boetius,  Consolatio  Philosophise. 

Cassiodorus,  De  arte  et  disciplina  liberalium  artium. 

Isidorus,  Etymologise.17 

Most  of  these  were  small  encyclopedias  of  the  seven  liberal 
arts  and,  as  Mullinger  says,  slavish  compilations  from  great 
Greek  and  Roman  treatises.*18  They  have  however  this 
merit, —  if  they  added  nothing,  they  at  least  presented  a  part 
of  the  great  inheritance  of  the  past,  though  in  a  bare,  uninviting 
form.  Capella,  Donatus,  and  Priscian  were  most  used ;  in 
earlier  centuries  the  first  two  were  the  special  favorites.19 

Some  idea  of  these  old  text-books  may  be  gained  through 
abstracts  of  the  grammars  of  Capella  and  Donatus  that  have 
been  prepared  from  these  books  and  placed  in  the  Appendix.20 
As  grammar  was  the  chief  secondary  subject, —  in  fact  almost 
preempted  the  ground, —  the  abstracts  will  be  especially  sug- 
gestive for  our  purpose.21 

Method. —  The  method  was  that  which  reproduced  things 
exactly  as  they  were, — a  storing  method  or  rote  method,  not 
one  that  stimulated  students  to  find  out  what  ought  to  be  and 
to  increase  the  sum  of  truth  ;  for  not  individual  thought  but  the 
condensed  thought  of  the  past  was  the  object  of  interest. 
Memory  work  thus  dominated  method,  and  this  "  requires 
definite  form  and  small  compass." 

Concreteness  in  method. —  But  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  grammars  and  the  method  that  accorded  with  them 

17  Taylor,  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Mid.  Ages,  47-8. 

18  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  21  ff. ;  Taylor,  op.  cit.,  47-56.  See  especially 
opera  ipsa. 

19  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  21  ff. 

20  In  connection  with  this  list  may  be  mentioned  two  other  books 
that  became  favorites  later  and  held  the  ground  till  the  16th  century, 
—  an  abbreviated  Priscian  in  verse,  and  the  Doctrinale  of  Alexander 
de  Villa  Dei,  in  verse  like  the  Priscian,  but  based  on  mediaeval  Latin. 
The  verse  form  of  these  two  grammars  is  significant,  and  is  itself  a 
commentary  on  the  bareness  and  unattractiveness  of  the  rote-method ; 
it  needed  rhythm  to  make  it  tolerable. 

21  See  Appendix  2. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      201 

represent  only  the  formal  work  of  the  period,  that  language 
and  concrete  grammar  were  really  learned  by  use,  especially  in 
the  church  service.  Latin  was  the  medium  of  communication. 
They  lived  Latin.22  So  when  we  look  into  a  text-book  of 
Latin  grammar  and  find  it  a  catalog  of  the  more  prominent 
abstractions  in  etymology  and  accidence,  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  illustrative  material,  the  concrete,  the  life  of  language 
study,  was  outside  the  treatise,  in  the  every-day  life  of  the 
student,  and  no  adequate  idea  of  method  can  be  obtained  with- 
out considering  this  point.  When  we  adopted  the  formal  part 
of  the  old  method  we  forgot  this  other  and  more  important 
part  of  language  teaching,  and  we  did  not  modify  the  formal 
enough  to  cover  the  loss.23 

Other  matters  that  relieved  abstractness. —  While  speak- 
ing of  curriculum  and  method,  we  must  keep  in  mind  two  edu- 
cational forces  that  are  not  always  noted  in  discussions  of  these 
topics :  — First  we  have  the  collections  of  classical  and  Chris- 
tian literature  found  in  the  monasteries,  to  which  reference  has 
been  made  before.24  An  occasional  catalog  that  has  come 
down  to  us  gives  us  additional  glimpses  of  the  educational 
facilities  of  the  times  and  tells  of  an  influence  that  may  have 
modified  the  barrenness  of  the  formal  text-books.  Even  these 
catalogs  however  give  place  to  such  books  as  Capella  and 
Donatus,  and  do  not  contradict  the  arguments  that  make  them 
the  most  characteristic  school-books  of  the  time. —  Second, 
there  were  the  monasteries,  abbeys,  and  cathedrals  themselves, 
which  presented,  in  persistent  forms,  the  figures,  scenes,  and 
even  stories  and  allegories  of  Christian  records  and  tradition. 
As  Allen  says  in  his  "  Great  Cathedrals,"  "  the  church  was 
the  book ; "  from  it  people  read,  and  from  it  they  received 
indelible  impressions  of  the  great  facts  of  the  new  era. 

Real  character  of  method. —  Aside  from  these  concrete 
elements,  which  after  all  relieved  the  dry  and  abstract  work 
of  secondary  education  but  little,  as  has  already  been  indicated, 
method  was  essentially  formal  and  abstract.     It  agreed  exactly, 

22  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24 :  353 ;  Clark,  op.  cit.,  passim. 

23  But  in  spite  of  this  concrete  element  formal,  abstract  work  was 
considered  necessary.     See  page  202,  and  note  25. 

24  See  Am.  Jour,  of  Educ,  Vol.  24  (Early  Christian  Schools  and 
Scholars)  ;  Mullinger,  Sch.  of  Chas.  Gt.,  71,  165-6. 


202  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

as  it  always  does,  with  the  conditions  and  the  mental  attitude  of 
the  time.  A  body  of  tradition  carefully  denned  and  to  be 
possessed  with  exactness,  a  receptive  attitude  on  the  part  of 
the  schools,  a  fondness  for  words  and  forms  rather  than  sub- 
stance, and  absence  of  strong  individuality  in  the  people,  nat- 
urally carry  with  them  a  method  which  reproduces  mechan- 
ically, and  a  strictness  that  brooks  no  failure  from  lack  of 
interest  and  vital  attachment  to  the  subject,  but  pushes  home 
the  task.  Rote  learning  agrees  with  these  conditions,  and 
harsh  discipline  accords  with  it  and  with  the  general  sentiment 
of  the  time.  "  Grammar  and  flagellation,  twin  brothers,"  may 
be  taken  as  a  general  summary  of  the  average  school  of  the 
period,  and  of  a  school  of  a  much  later  period.25  Learning 
elementary  Latin  Grammar  was  a  dreary  task,  consisting  largely 
of  memorizing  words,  forms,  abstractions  and  lists,  before  their 
significance  was  comprehended. 

Some  secondary  schools  of  larger  scope. —  But  at  differ- 
ent points  in  the  preceding  pages  we  have  caught  sight  of  schools 
that  easily  distinguished  themselves  from  those  that  have  just 
been  described.  When  we  consider  these  schools,  which  are 
more  important  for  our  purpose  because  they  were  more  nearly 
in  the  line  of  succession  of  secondary  education  than  others  and 
really  represented  secondary  education  during  the  centuries 
covered  by  this  chapter,  we  must  modify  to  some  extent  our 
ideas  of  the  bareness  and  sternness  of  the  curriculum  and 
method  just  described.  We  must  add  a  culture  idea.  In  these 
schools  pupils  went  to  the  sources  and  read  and  appreciated 
much  of  classical  literature.  In  writing  they  gave  more  atten- 
tion to  style.  They  gained  more  insight  into  nature,  science, 
and  history,  though  their  knowledge  was  still  meagre  and 
for  the  most  part  second  hand.  They  touched  the  fine  arts 
also.  In  their  method  the  schools  appealed  more  to  interest,  and 
in  management  they  used  a  more  sympathetic  and  hence  more 
pedogogical  system  of  discipline.  Some  of  these  schools  at- 
tained great  renown,  but  those  that  became  conspicuous  were 
very  few.     They  had  modified  the  Roman  curriculum  by  adding 

25  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  36-7,  269.  See  also  his  chapter  on  "The  Inner 
Workings  of  Christian  Schools,"  in  the  same  book.  Conf.  references 
on  the  Renaissance  period  in  Chapters  XV-XVI. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      203 

the  new  literature.  They  differed  most  from  the  old  schools  in 
the  ideal  that  Christianity  had  supplied.  Aside  from  these  ad- 
ditions they  did  practically  nothing  to  develop  education  beyond 
the  earlier  standard.  These  schools  especially  claim  our  atten- 
tion. We  shall  have  to  deal  with  them  again.  At  the  same  time 
their  more  humble  associates  represent  the  real  education  of  the 
period,  and,  after  all,  make  a  great  epoch  in  education. 

Summary. —  In  summarising  this  chapter  and  defining  the 
secondary  school  that  characterized  the  age  we  must  keep  in 
mind  the  two  types  that  have  been  discussed, —  1,  the  average 
school ; 2G  2,  the  exceptional  school 27  that  was  prophetic  of  the 
future. 


EXCEPTIONAL  SCHOOL 

Curriculum :  — 

Religious  instruction. 

Grammar.  —  Elements  of 
Latin  language.  More 
life,  substance,  and  mean- 
ing. 

More  classical  literature, — 
for  literary  as  well  as  for 
grammatical  purposes. 

Christian  Latin  literature. 

Notarial  work  and  letter  writ- 
ing. 

Composition  —  both  prose  and 
verse. 

Rhetoric  and  Elementary 
Logic. 

Music. 

Number ;   Arithmetic. 

Geography ;  Geometry ;  Sci- 
ence. All  meagre.  Char- 
acteristic ancient  ideas. 

(Greek  and  History.)  ? 

26  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  24-30,  35  ff.,  70  ff.,  84-5,  92  f .,  95 ;  Mullinger,  Sch. 
of  Chas.  Gt,  31,  35-9,  69-70,  74,  86-88,  110,  131,  158;  Univ.  of  Cambridge, 
21-2,  42;  Paulsen,  Germ,  Educ,  Chap.  II  (general  acct.)  ;  Rashdall, 
op.  cit.,  I.27,  30,  32  ff.,  37  f. ;  11:705;  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  8-12;  West, 
op.  cit.,  27,  58,  82,  84;  Howard,  op.  cit.,  4;  Ziegler,  op.  cit.,  27  ff.;  Amer. 
Jour,  of  Educ,  24:  99-100,  in,  365;  Donatus,  op.  cit.;  Capella,  op.  cit.; 
Davidson,  op.  cit.,  162. 

27  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  50,  86,  97  f.,  173 ;  Mullinger,  Sch.  of  Chas.  Gt.,  132, 
142  ff.,  152-3 ;  Univ.  of  Camb.,  8  and  note,  9,  20,  22,  42  ff.,  57 ;  Compayre, 


AVERAGE   SCHOOL 

Curriculum :  — 

Religious  instruction. 

Grammar,  —    bare,      formal 
work. 
Meagre  classical  literature, 
for  grammatical  purposes 
chiefly. 

Christian  Latin  literature. 

Notarial  work  and  letter  writ- 
ing. 

Music. 

Number. 


(Rhetoric, —  small  amount, 
formal, —  and  Elementary 
Logic.)  ? 


204 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Method :  — 

Also  formal,  but  more  stimu- 
lating work,  more  inter- 
est. More  pedagogical 
discipline. 


Occasional  references  to  such 
matters  as  absorbing  from 
the  master, —  drinking  in 
his  words, —  science  illus- 
trated by  apparatus,  etc. 

Same  books.  Also  classical 
authors  themselves. 


Method :  — 

Dictation ;  rote-learning. 

Written  exercises ;  vocabulary- 
building. 

Catechetical  plan  much  used. 

Severe  discipline ;  "  flagella- 
tion and  harsh  memory 
work  "  characteristic. 

Latin  language,  however,  in 
common  use;  hence  some 
elements  of  natural 
method. 

Text-books  and  reference 
books  few :  —  Priscian, 
Donatus,  Capella,  Isidore, 
Boetius.  The  last  three 
compendiums  of  learning, 
— "  transition  books  of 
transition  centuries," 

from  old  classical  culture 
to  the  revived  culture  of 
the  15th  and  later  cen- 
turies. Books  generally 
in  teachers'  hands  only. 

Aim:  — 

To  learn  the  Latin  language. 
To  make  all  subserve  religion. 

We  should  think  of  the  curricu- 
lum as  reduced  to  its  low- 
est terms, —  at  least  in 
many,  and  probably  in 
most,  cases.  School  work 
often  gave  nothing  but  a 
little  poor  Latin  and  in- 
struction in  the  church 
forms,  formulas,  etc. 
The  tenth  century  the 
darkest  in  France  and 
England. 

Standards  varied. —  There  was  thus  no  universal  standard. 
Secondary  education  ranged  from  the  narrowest  and  most  for- 
mal work  to  real  liberal  education.     At  whichever  end  of  the 

Abelard,  5-6;  West,  op.  cit.,  13-16,  27  f.,  31-4.  44-5-  66,  131,  136,  139, 
140,  174;  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  7-9;  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24:330-40,  343~5> 
348-9,  353,  355,  359,  361-2,  368-70,  540,  543- 


Aim:  — 

To  master  the  language  of  the 
church  and  of  literature. 
To  prepare  for  ecclesias- 
tical positions  and  other 
positions  of  influence. 

More  of  culture  idea  comes  in. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  mon- 
astic period  ancient  poets 
and  orators  began  to  be 
studied  with  genuine  ad- 
miration. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      205 

line  we  observe,  however,  we  find  that  the  secondary  school  de- 
veloped nothing  new  in  curriculum,  except  formal  religious  in- 
struction, and  nothing  new  in  method ;  but  there  was  back  of 
curriculum  and  method  a  great  force  that  would  eventually 
transform  them. 

The  ideals. —  As  to  ideals,  the  central  thought  was  the 
perpetuation  of  a  type,  of  an  institution, —  the  old  tribal  ideal 
adapted.  There  was  thus  a  return  to  primitive  ideals,  though 
colored  by  new  religious  ideas,  and  to  a  primitive  type  of  method 
that  was  adapted  to  the  ideal. 

Amid  such  unfavorable  surroundings  culture  still  per- 
petuates itself. —  And  yet  culture  and  scholarship  always 
manage  to  perpetuate  themselves  through  responsive  souls.  A 
few  in  every  generation,  however  unpromising  the  conditions, 
catch  the  glow  from  the  past  and  quietly  maintain  it.  They, 
however,  merely  maintain ;  they  do  not  intensify.  Such  times 
are  not  creative.  The  quiet  seclusion  of  the  age  in  question 
gave  favorable  opportunity  for  many  a  fine  soul  to  sustain  itself 
in  culture  and  hand  on  the  tradition, —  gave  opportunity  also  for 
groups  of  scholars  to  conduct  conspicuous  schools  that  were 
fair  summaries  of  the  best  of  the  past  from  a  culture  point  of 
view.     This  accounts  for  the  exceptional  schools. 

Service  of  the  age. —  The  one  distinctive  service  of  the 
age  lay  in  crystallizing  the  new  form  of  school  that  gave  educa- 
tion the  location,  attachments,  and  suroundings  best  suited  to  its 
general  character  and  aims  at  this  stage  of  its  development,  and 
in  making  this  the  typical  school  of  the  mediaeval  times,  giving  it 
such  prominence  in  fact  that  it  seemed  the  only  school  form,  — 
"  ceu  cetera  nusquam  forent." 

Comparison  between  the  typical  school  of  the  period  and 
old  schools. —  This  school,  as  has  already  been  hinted,  was 
the  same  one  we  have  seen  before,  but  the  church  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  state  as  a  center  of  interest.  The  old  curriculum 
and  method  were  there,  as  a  rule  much  attenuated  and  adapted 
crudely  to  the  life  and  thought  of  the  early  church,  but  occasion- 
ally developed  with  surpassing  enterprise.  Even  initiation  cere- 
monies were  there,  but  they  represented  induction  into  church 
citizenship  rather  than  political  citizenship.  They  were,  called 
confirmation,  and  the  age  of  application  was  chosen  for  the  same 


206  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

instinctive  reason  that  guided  primitive  tribes  when  they  origin- 
ated the  ceremony,  viz.,  the  peculiar  fitness  of  adolescence  for 
the  new  life.     Education  has  become  institutional. 

APPENDIX  I 

Six  religious  orders. —  Human  nature  has  not  tolerated  a  single 
organization  in  any  line.  Many  orders  with  the  general  purposes 
that  have  been  outlined  arose  in  the  early  Christian  and  mediaeval 
centuries.  To  summarize  and  classify  some  of  the  most  important 
developments  in  this  direction  we  may  say  that  the  religious  spirit  of 
the  times  evolved  five  or  six  conspicuous  organizations  that  particularly 
concern  us  here. 

1.  Monasteries  of  St.  Martin  and  Cassian  in  Southern  Europe,  be- 
ginning in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  Cassian  gave  form  to  the 
monastic  development. 

2.  Irish  monasteries,  related  more  intimately  to  Greek  educational 
ideals. 

3.  Benedictine  monasteries,  widely  spread  over  Europe.  They  repre- 
sented a  much  more  extensive  movement  than  I  and  2,  and  wider 
ideas  of  education  than  those  of  the  Cassian  system,  though  still  narrow. 

4  and  5.  Franciscan  monasteries  and  Dominican  monasteries.  They 
spread  rapidly  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  later. 
These  took  the  place  of  the  Benedictine  establishments  as  educational 
centers,  and   figured  prominently   in   early   university  life. 

6.  To  these  may  be  added  organizations  of  religious  functionaries 
in  connection  with  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches  similar  to  cathe- 
drals,—  organizations  having  more  or  less  of  the  monastic  spirit  and 
form. 

APPENDIX  II 

Summaries  of  some  famous  old  text-books  which  were  used  in  the 
schools  for  centuries  and  then  served  as  a  basis  of  newer  books, —  Lily's 
Grammar  and  others. 

1.    Martianus  Capella.28 

Prefatory  Note:  Capella  has  a  unique  and  extremely  fanciful 
scheme  for  presenting  his  treatise  on  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts.  He  im- 
agines the  marriage  of  Mercury  and  Philology  and  very  appropriately 
has  as  bridesmaids  or  attendants  at  the  union  of  the  crafty  word- 
maker  and  the  language  maiden,  the  "  seven  arts."  Each  in  turn 
comes  forward  and  sets  off  her  art  in  due  form  and  style. 

We  first  have  an  introduction  in  verse  representing  a  kind  of  sportive 
conflict  with  the  Muse  who  shows  the  advantages  and  even  the  necessity 
of  rhetorical  embellishments  in  treating  a  subject,  and  gently  rebukes 
what  the  writer  claims  is  his  fixed  purpose, —  to  bring  on  the  various 

28  The  Teubner  edition. 


SIXTH  'CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      207 

"arts"  as  characters  giving  the  plain  unembellished  principles  (prae- 
cepta)  of  their  special  lines  of  interest.  Scattered  along  the  not 
uninteresting  poetical  arguments  are  such  expressions  as 

Commenta  —  frigente  vero  nil  posse. 


Uitioque  dat  poetae 
Infracta  ferre  certa 
Lasciva  dans  lepori 
Et  paginam  venustans 
Multa  illitam  colore. 

Vestiantur  artes. 

Cur  ergo  non  fateris 
Ni  figurinis  figura 
Nil  posse  comperari. 

Coming  to  Capella's  prose  he  introduces  the  genius  of  grammar  in  the 
guise  of  a  woman,  in  this  rather  fanciful  style :  — 

"  Leto's  son  now  brings  in  one  of  Mercury's  attendants,  old, 
but  comely,  one  claiming  descent  from  Osiris  and  birth  at  Memphis, 
long  guarded  in  secret,  but  found  and  educated  by  Mercury.  In  Attica 
where  she  has  lived  most  of  her  life  she  wore  the  pallium,  but 
enters  the  assembly  of  the  gods  now  in  Latin  fashion,  because  of  Latin 
environment  and  Latin  auspices." 

She  enters  as  a  "  doctor "  of  language  bearing  the  symbols  and 
drugs  of  leech-craft,  for  curing  various  defects  of  vocal  organs  and 
faults  of  speech.  Conspicuous  among  her  tools  is  a  file  highly  polished 
displaying  eight  gilded  parts  or  sides  (representing  the  traditional  eight 
parts  of  speech  that  were  a  panacea  for  many  language  faults).  Capella, 
after  a  long  interval,  goes  on  to  say :  "  As  often  as  she  received  any 
one  to  be  cured  it  was  her  custom  to  treat  first  of  the  Noun, —  the 
common  errors  and  gender,  then  modes,  tenses,  and  inflections  of 
verbs.  To  cure  the  dull  and  slow  she  had  them  run  the  whole  round, 
labor  hard  at  the  whole  art." 

After  a  preliminary  description  Capella  suffers  the  grammar  maiden 
to  speak  and  explain  her  art.  She  first  explains  names  connected  with 
herself  or  her  profession  in  Greece  and  Rome, —  litteratura,  litteratio, 
litteratus,  litterator,  grammatodidaskalos, —  and  then  explains  the  scope 
of  her  art.  Originally  grammar  had  to  do  with  "  reading  and  writing 
well,"  but  it  has  added  to  other  functions  that  of  interpreting  and  that 
of  demonstrating  skillfully,  probably  referring  to  the  rise  of  oratory. 

Next  she  refers  to  four  forces  at  work:  1.  Grammar  (litteratura), 
the  teacher;  2,  letters  (litterae),  the  subject  matter;  3,  the  grammarian, 
or  scholar  (grammaticus),29  the  resultant  of  the  teaching;  4,  the  skillful 
manipulator  of  language  who  has  attained  cleverness  in  the  art. 

29  Nepos  (quoted  by  Suetonius)  says  the  term  ought  to  be  defined 
interpres  poetarum.      In  the  period  discussed  in  this  chapter  the  gram- 


208  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

She  teaches,  she  says,  the  nature  and  use  of  speech  and  the  art  of 
judging  language.  In  treating  of  speech  she  takes  up  the  matter  ana- 
lytically, first  dealing  with  letters.  Letters  are  the  product  of  nature 
(sounds),  and  the  product  of  art  (forms).  They  are  divided  into  two 
classes, —  vowels,  which  stand  alone,  and  consonants,  which  cannot 
stand  alone.  The  Greeks,  she  says,  made  seven  vowels,  old  Latin,  six, 
later  Latin,  five.  They  are  long  or  short ;  acute,  grave  or  circumflex ; 
combined  or  single.  They  make  syllables  alone  or  take  consonants  on 
either  side.  They  change  into  various  other  vowels  in  inflection.  Ex- 
planations or  illustrations  are  given  to  make  these  classifications  clear. 
In  connection  with  the  last  characteristic  of  vowels  there  is  some 
curious  philology :  — "  Item  e  littera  primum  in  A  reformatur,  ut  sero, 
satum;  vel  in  i,  ut  moneo,  monitus;  vel  in  o,  ut  tegendo,  toga.  .  .  . 
Similiter  i  quoque  vocalis  in  a  convertitur,  ut  signis,  signa;  in  e,  ut 
fortis  forte. —  Non  aliter  o  littera  in  a  transit,  ut  creo,  creari;  vel 
in  e,  ut  tutor,  tutela,"  etc. 

Then  she  goes  on  with  statements  and  abundant  illustrations  as  to  the 
relations  and  "junctions"  of  vowels, —  the  letters  with  which  they  as- 
sociate on  either  side  and  the  words  they  can  terminate.  Some  inter- 
esting philological  points  are  given  on  the  way.  I.  Oisus  is  the  old 
spelling  for  usus.  2.  The  letter  / 30  has  four  sounds,  "  exilis "  when 
doubled ;  "  medius  "  when  it  ends  nouns ;  "  leniter  sonat "  when  it  pre- 
cedes vowels ;  "  plenus "  when  the  letters  p,  g,  c,  or  f  precede.  Again 
n  "  plenior  apparet"  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  words,  exilior  in  the 
middle  of  words.31  Divus  Claudius,  she  informs  us,  in  imitation  of 
the  Greeks  added  p  and  c  (as  psalterium,  sacsa)  ;  c  alone  of  mutes 
lengthens  the  preceding  vowel.32 

She  next  takes  up  consonants,  divided  into  semi-vowels  and  mutes, 
and  catalogs  various  facts  as  to  the  letters  (preceding  and  succeeding) 
with  which  the  consonants  are  associated.  Here  comes  in  the  curious 
statement  that  r  is  converted  into  I,  n,  or  .y  (niger,  nigcllus;  femur, 
feminis;  gero,  gessi).  Some,  she  says,  do  not  make  J  a  letter,  but  a 
kind  of  sibilant,  though  she  finds  that  it  deports  itself  like  other  letters. 
No  one,  however,  makes  x  a  letter,  as  it  is  doubled;  it  is  transformed 
into  v  (nix,  nivis),  and  into  c  (pix,  picis).  The  letter  h  passes  into 
x  (traho,  traxi).  She  makes  altogether  twelve  semi-vowels,  six  vowels 
(including  y),  and  five  others  (aspirates,  doubles,  or  Greek),  making 
twenty-three  letters. 

maticus  was  the  head  of  the  monastic  school  and  came  to  have  much 
power  in  the  community.  In  the  next  period  sensitiveness  as  to  his 
perogatives  (and  particularly  as  to  school  revenues)  stimulated  or 
colored  the  conflicts  of  cities  to  establish  new  schools  independent  of 
the  old. 

30  Page  59. 

31  Page  6o. 

32  These  and  later  examples  are  interesting  in  comparison  with 
modern  philological  explanations. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      209 

The  grammar  maiden  now  runs  over  the  various  letters,  showing 
by  what  conformations  of  mouth,  combined  with  palate  and  breath, 
each  is  formed.     This  gives  us  some  clue  to  the  pronunciation  of  Latin. 

A  poetical  passage  follows,  in  which  she  tells  us  what  she  has 
thus  far  done  and  introduces  the  topics,  "  syllables,"  "  union  of  let- 
ters!' and  "accent,"  and  then,  under  the  influence  of  the  prose  muse 
again,  briefly  refers  to  combinations  of  letters  forming  syllables,  and 
hastens  on  to  accent  and  quantity.  She  explains  accent  rather  poetically 
as  "  anima  vocis  et  seminarium  musices,  quod  omnis  modulatio  ex  fas- 
tigiis  vocum  gravitateque  componitur  ideoque  accentus  quasi  adcantus 
dictus  est."  She  makes  three  qualities  of  sound,  acutus,  circumflexus 
(inflexus,  or  flexus),  gravis,  and  tells  what  syllables  go  by  these  names. 
Here  again  she  gives  clue  to  Latin  pronunciation,  giving  such  examples 
as  Cotulo,  Cethegus,  occidit,  tenebras.  She  then  considers  the  effect  of 
the  context  in  taking  away  or  changing  accent.  Finally  she  takes  up 
Greek  words,  which  she  says  may  be  made  Latin  or  remain  Greek, 
but  even  in  the  latter  case  Latin  and  Greek  agree  as  to  middle  syllables. 

Several  pages  from  this  point  on  she  devotes  to  a  catalog  of  facts 
concerning  syllables  long  or  short  by  nature  or  position. 

Common  vowels  next  claim  attention  and  here  she  makes  eight  cate- 
gories, 1,  short  vowels  followed  by  a  liquid  and  consonant;  2,  short 
vowels  followed  by  a  liquid  added  to  a  consonant;  3,  short  vowels 
followed  by  a  consonant  and  h;  4,  a  short  vowel  ending  a  definite  part 
of  the  sentence ;  5,  a  diphthong  before  a  vowel ;  6,  a  long  vowel  fol- 
lowed by  another  vowel;  7,  when  the  letter  c  (followed  by  a  vowel) 
ends  a  pronoun ;  8,  when  z  follows  a  short  vowel. 

She  next  considers  final  syllables  "  in  which  rules  and  regular  forms 
of  art  consist,"  meaning,  presumably,  that  they  suggest  a  regular  sys- 
tem of  prosodic  rules  and  have  much  to  do  with  artistic  literary  form. 
Here  mingled  with  parts  of  prosody  are  pages  which  are  the  prototypes 
of  classified  material  as  to  gender,  found  in  the  accidence  part  of  every 
grammar  to  this  day.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  she  seems  to  mix  present 
and  future  participles  here.33 

This  brings  her  to  analogy,  introduced  by  a  piece  of  poetry  which  is 
rather  obscure  in  parts.  She  speaks  of  analogy  in  form  and  in  de- 
clension and  classification  of  words.  Here  we  note  the  old  form  specua 
which  she  says  the  ancients  used.34  She  gives  variations  in  the  declen- 
sion of  genu  and  cornu  (some  old  forms),  and  also  optumus  and  maxu- 
mus.35  She  decides  that  the  plural  parium  and  similar  forms  are  mis- 
takes.36 She  curiously  gives  the  declension  of  neuter  and  uter  as 
neutrius,  nutri,  etc.,  whereas  only  one  example  of  neutri  as  dative  is 
given  in  Harper  (and  this  from  Plautus),  while  there  are  several  regular 
genitives.  The  ancients,  she  says,  made  Hectoris,  Catonis,  but  we 
shorten.37  Again  the  old  form  is  optumatum,  the  new  optumatium. 
She  says  praegnas  is  feminine  and  neuter38  and  speaks  of  the  shorten- 

33  Page  285.  35  Page  293.  »*  Page  298. 

34  Page  293.  3G  Page  297.  38  Page  299. 


210  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

ing  of  ret  and  spei.39  She  indicates  that  words  have  -is  in  the  accusa- 
tive plural,  when  the  genitive  plural  has  -ium.  Again  she  mentions 
the  fact  that  some  add  t  to  lac  and  that  the  ancients  said  lacte.i0  Fol- 
lowing this  she  gives  some  hints  as  to  the  quantity  of  words  ending  in 
x.iX  She  makes  v  a  regular  vowel  and  calls  it  such  even  in  words  like 
nix,  saying  that  a  consonant  cannot  pass  over  into  a  vowel. 

She  next  takes  up  verbs  of  which  she  makes  five  classes, —  active, 
passive,  neuter,  common,  deponent.  As  to  modes  she  presents  different 
classifications  as  given  by  different  authors,  varying  from  five  to  ten. 
Those  who  give  five,  she  tells  us,  make  them  indicative,  imperative, 
optative,  subjunctive  (conjunctivus),  infinitive  (or  universal  mode). 
Others  add  a  part  or  all  of  the  following, —  promissive,  interrogative 
(percontativus),  and  subjective  as  distinguished  from  conjunctivus, 
but  she  decides  there  is  no  reason  to  go  beyond  the  five. 

The  grammar  goddess  makes  but  three  conjugations.  She  gives  audis 
as  an  example  of  the  third,  but  apparently  recognizes  two  classes,  those 
having  -Is  and  -is.  The  signs  of  the  conjugations  she  finds  in  the 
second  singular  present.  One  notes  in  passing  the  curious  form  triumfo. 
She  evidently  makes  the  imperative  the  base  form  and  builds  other 
forms  on  it ;  the  infinitive,  she  says,  is  formed  from  the  imperative 
by  adding.42  Consistently  with  other  parts  of  her  presentation  she  makes 
forms  by  changing  one  letter  into  another.  Some  other  interesting 
points  noted  in  this  connection  are  these :  —  The  ancients  left  off  the  e 
in  the  imperfect.  This  tense  she  names  inchoativum,  while  the  per- 
fect is  absolutum,  and  the  pluperfect  exactum  or  praeteritum  per- 
fection, or  species  inchoativa.43  Terence  made  -bo  in  the  future  of 
the  third  conjugation.  Four  lines  are  given  to  special  cases  with 
verbs.Ai 

Grammar  now  treats  very  briefly  of  anomalies,  putting  all  remarks  ir. 
the  form,  "when  we  say-,  why  do  we  not  say-?" 

The  discourse  is  suddenly  brought  to  an  end  by  a  device  through 
which  the  assembled  council  at  the  nuptials  signifies  that  it  would  be 
tiresome  to  them,  as  well  as  a  thankless  task,  to  run  through  other 
details,  mentioning  particularly  the  eight  parts  of  speech,  vitia,  and 
other  anomala.  This  suggests  that  various  details  not  found  here 
were  given  in  school.  It  all  makes  grammar  a  dry,  barren  learning 
of  facts  rather  than  a  thing  of  life.  We  may  question  whether  the  fanci- 
ful form  of  this  grammar  may  not  be  a  concession  to  give  interest  to  dry 
formalism. 

2.     Donatus. 

Book  I. 

1.  Vox,  i.e.,  sound, —  articulate,  inarticulate. 

2.  Letters  classified. 

39  Page  301.  *2  Pages  316-17. 

40  Page  306.  43  Page  322. 

41  Page  308.  4*  Page  324. 


SIXTH  CENTURY  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY      211 

3.  Syllables, —  long,  short,  common.  Long  syllables  have  two 
"  times." 

4.  Feet  classified  —  abundant  detail  —  abstract. 

5.  Tones  or  accent.     Accent-signs  and  other  signs. 

6.  Positurae,  i.e.,  punctuation.  They  correspond  to  our  period, 
colon,  and  comma,  but  are  indicated  by  points  placed  at  top,  bottom 
and  middle  of  line  respectively. 

Book  II. 

Eight  parts  of  speech  named.  Donatus  says  "many  make  more,  many 
fewer  parts."    No  details. 

I.    The  noun.     Six  attributes  :  — 

1.  Qualitas,  indicating  whether  the  noun  is  propria  or  appel- 
lativa.  He  includes  adjectives  among  substantives  (or  ap- 
pellativa  nomina). 

2.  Comparison, —  details  and  peculiarities.  Diminutives  come 
in  here.     Some  case  construction  touched  upon. 

3.  Gender.     Details. 

4.  Number.     Details. 

5a.  Figurae,  here  referring  not  to  inflectional  forms,  but  to  com- 
position. Simple  and  compound  nouns.  Manner  of  com- 
pounding. 

5b.  Compound  substantives  and  their  inflection. 

6a.  Cases.  Some,  he  says,  make  seven  cases,  i.e.,  there  are  two 
ablatives,  one  with  ab,  one  without.  (In  specifying  the 
ablative  both  Donatus  and  Capella  used  ab  or  some  other 
preposition.) 

6b.  Formae  casum,  i.e.,  peculiarities  of  declension, —  aptotes, 
triptotes,  irregulars,  defectives. 

6c.  The  ablative.  From  it  he  forms  genitive  plural  and  dative 
and  ablative  plural.  He  mentions  accusative  plural  in  is 
when  ablative  is  —  i,  and  accusative  singular  —  itn.  (This 
is  the  nearest  approach  to  the  modern  paradigm.  Ancient 
grammars  have  little  to  do  with  these  much  used  graphic 
presentations  and  have  little  to  guide  the  pupil  in  inflection. 
But  this  is  relieved  by  an  important  part  of  method  which 
we  forget.  The  Latin  was  a  living  language.  Forms  were 
learned  by  use.)  Before  closing  the  topic  Donatus  specifies 
the  letters  in  which  nouns  can  end. 
II.  The  pronoun.  Same  attributes  as  nouns.  Various  details. 
III.    Verbs.     Seven  accidents.     Quality  of  verbs   depends   on   mode 

and    form.     Seven    Modes, —  indicative,    imperative,   promissive, 

optative,  conjunctive,  infinitive,  impersonal,    (the  latter  not  be- 
ing regarded  as  a  separate  mode  by  some). 

Four   "  forms." —  perfect,   meditative,   inchoative,   frequentative. 

Three  conjugations. 

Five  "  genera  ", —  active,  passive,  neuter,  common,  deponents, 
wo     numen. 

Two  figurae, —  simple,  compound. 
III.     Three  tenses, —  present,  preterite,  future.     The  second  has  three 
forms,    imperfect,    perfect,    pluperfect.     (Donatus    gives    the 
names  we  are  accustomed  to  and  so  differs  from  Capella). 

Three  persons  (and  in  this  connection  the  cases  connected). 


212  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

IV.  Adverbs.  Various  origins.  Lengths.  Says  facile  and  difficile 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  nouns  rather  than  adjectives.45  Ad- 
verbs have  three  accidents,  i,  "  signifkatio  "  (place,  time,  desire, 
quality,  etc.);  2,  "  comparatio "  (here  he  includes  diminutives 
as  correlative  with  forms  of  comparison.  He  did  the  same  in 
adjectives);  3,  figurae, —  simple,  compound. 
V.     Participles.     Six  accidents ;   in  place  of  "  qaulitas^'  and  "  con- 

jugatio  "  in  verbs  come  "  signifkatio  "  and  "  casus." 
VI.     Conjunctions, —  with    details    of    classification,    etc.     Uncertain 
whether  cum  and  ut  are  conjunctions,  prepositions,  or  adverbs; 
determined  by  context. 
VII.     Prepositions ;  1,  governing  cases ;  2,  in  composition.     They  have 
only  one  accident,  case ;  there  are  two  cases,  ablative  and  accusa- 
tive, the  idea  evidently  being  that  the  case  following  the  preposi- 
tion is  its  case.     Accents  of  prepositions  are  acute  and  grave, 
according  as  they  are  separate   from  or  joined  with  cases  or 
words.    The  ancients  used  a  preposition  with  the  genitive,  as 
crurum  tenus. 
VIII.     Interjections.— Classification.     Comparison    with    Greek    usage. 
Some  peculiarities. 

Book  III. 

1.  Barbarism,— violations  of  ordinary  usage  by  adding,  taking  away, 
substituting,  or  transforming  letters,  syllables,  quantity,  accent,  aspira- 
tion. .  i-i 

2.  Solecism, —  discrepancies,    bad    connection.    Various    details.  _ 

3!  Various  other  vitia  given,  with  their  Greek  names  and  with  illus- 
trations. 

4.  Metaphlasm,  with  details.     Greek  names. 

5.  Schemata,  or  figures  of  speech,— prolepsis,  zengma,  etc.,  all  with 
Greek  names. 

6.  Tropes.    Various  details.    Greek  names  again. 

*5  Section  1759. 


XIII 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION   IN    THE   EARLY   UNIVERSITY   PERIOD 

Early  Christian  centuries  and  mediaeval  times  compared 
as  to  spirit. —  The  early  Christian  centuries  made  good  use 
of  the  training  and  methods  of  the  Greek  rhetorical  and  philo- 
sophical schools  and  the  Roman  grammar  school  in  rebutting 
heresies,  settling  creeds,  and  building  up  generally  the  great 
body  of  patristic  literature.  The  first  stimulus  of  new  thought 
and  new  ideas  that  came  in  with  Christianity,  working  together 
with  the  old  discipline  and  power  produced  by  the  old  educa- 
tion, wrought  marvels  in  this  direction  and  left  for  the  future  a 
vast  mass  of  material  that  was  chiefly  of  a  religious  nature,  but 
touched  various  sides  of  life,  both  social  and  political.  The 
enthusiasm  of  a  fresh  age,  goaded  by  the  pricks  of  controversy 
that  the  times  naturally  developed,  gave  originality  and  life  to 
the  products  of  that  age. 

In  contrast  with  this  period  succeeding  centuries  may  be  char- 
acterized as  formalizing  rather  than  creative.  It  is  noticeable 
that  the  fresh  thought  of  one  age  is  moulded  into  form  in 
another.  Spontaneity  and  enthusiastic  advance  of  one  period 
thus  give  place  to  formalizing  activity  in  the  next,  to  quiet  but 
wide-spread  assimilation.  The  mediaeval  centuries  stereotyped 
what  had  been  set  up  for  them  by  the  earlier  Christian  age. 
Their  quiescence  in  the  direction  of  productiveness  is  empha- 
sized by  the  fact  that  they  not  only  did  not  add,  they  even  con- 
densed and  epitomized  to  the  barest  summaries  the  mass  of  ma- 
terial in  the  production  of  which  earlier  ages  reveled,  and  in  the 
transmission  of  which  they  gloried.  It  was  too  much  to  take 
the  whole.  Besides,  some  crystallization  or  condensation  in  this 
vast  accumulation  was  necessary  in  order  that  the  average 
mediaeval  mind  might  compass  it.  At  any  rate  they  made  large 
use  of  these  condensations  of  the  wisdom  and  the  culture  ma- 
terial of  the  ancients,  as  exemplified  in  the  epitomes  already 

213 


214  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

referred  to.1  But  they  also  studied  in  various  degrees  the 
patristic  literature  which  had  been  handed  on,  applying  it  in 
saintly  life,  church  forms,  church  organizations,  and  ecclesiastic 
polities  of  a  rather  intense  type.  The  schools  of  the  period, 
settling  down,  as  they  did,  into  quiet  and  easy  forms,  and  giving 
themselves  to  memory  work  rather  than  to  investigation,  were 
in  exact  accord  with  the  times. 

Significance  of  the  rhythmic  movement. —  The  rhythmic 
movement,  one  limit  of  which  is  represented  by  spontaneity  and 
creative  spirit,  and  the  other  limit  by  formalizing  and  assimila- 
tion, is  the  result  of  natural  law.  If  it  were  not  for  this,  ad- 
vance thought  would  break  anchorage,  —  would  fail  to  attach 
itself  to  the  world,  and  would  eventually  lose  itself.  There 
must  be  a  time  of  assimilation  before  any  new  productiveness 
can  take  place.  But  in  time  the  food  becomes  stale,  nutrition 
suffers,  and  the  nervous  system  of  the  world  becomes  restless 
for  something  new.2  There  is  an  eager  grasping  of  fresh 
thought,  or  an  enthusiastic  reviving  of  a  thought  that  has  been 
lost,  or  the  working  over  of  old  thought  by  a  new  method,3 
or  the  crystallization  and  systematization  that  introduce 
science.  All  of  these  we  find  coming  into  full  view  in  the  next 
period  to  be  considered. 

Influences  at  work  —  Saracenic  enterprise. —  To  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  the  new  period  for  education  we  must 
recall  the  work  of  the  Saracens  in  Southern  Europe  that 
revived  old  Greek  culture,  particularly  along  scientific  lines.4 

1  Chapter  XII. 

2  In  the  present  case  the  diet  of  past  achievement  had  become  so 
meagre  that  there  was  danger  of  intellectual  asnemia. 

3  See  Clark,  Lat.  of   Mid.  Ages  and  Renais.    36. 

4  Clark  points  out  the  importance  of  considering  here  the  influence 
of  Greek  and  Greco-Semitic  culture  of  the  Byzantines  and  Saracens. 
At  points  where  the  two  lines  of  culture  came  into  contact,  as  in  Sicily 
and  Spain,  there  was  an  inevitable  stimulus  of  thought  and  intellectual 
activity  from  the  antagonism  and  friction  which  the  hostile  systems  de- 
veloped as  well  as  from  contributions  which  each  school  of  thought 
made  to  the  other. 

"  The  influence  of  Arabian  learning  directed  scholastic  thought  into 
new  channels  and  to  new  sources,  rather  than  gave  any  original  con- 
tributions to  European  knowledge.  Saracenic  learning  was  more  bril- 
liant, but  did  not  have  the  same  deep  sources  and  organic  connection 
with  the  whole  social  system  possessed  by  scholasticism.  It  did  not 
take  deep  enough  root  to  be  perennial."    Page  36. 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  215 

The  part  of  this  Greek  culture  that  most  amazed  and  delighted 
the  European  world  was  the  work  of  Aristotle,  especially  his 
logic.  The  minds  of  Europe  were  fascinated  by  the  discovery, 
and  they  became  absorbed  in  expounding  and  analyzing  their 
new  treasures  and  in  applying  the  Aristotelian  forms  of  thought. 
But  while  this  occupied  the  foreground  of  attention  for  a  time, 
the  old-new  sciences  that  the  Saracens  fostered  and  advanced, — 
both  pure  and  applied  science,  mathematics,  and  natural  philoso- 
phy,—  were  of  equal  importance.  They  waited,  however,  for 
adequate  development,  owing  to  causes  that  will  be  apparent  as 
we  proceed.  Saracenic  schools  were  vigorous  and  attractive; 
they  magnetized  the  northern  Europeans  who  repaired  to  them 
and  influenced  the  Christian  schools  that  sprang  up  beside  them. 
The  students  of  the  new  learning  were  becoming  scholars  who 
were  to  be  heard  from.  Among  the  schools  of  the  Saracens 
were  noted  universities  at  leading  centers.  They  offered  a 
broad  education  and  were  so  successful  and  influential  that 
Christendom  felt  it  must  oppose  itself  to  them  in  self  defense, — 
an  opposition  that  resulted  in  suppressing  this  rampant  Sara- 
cenic education  about  1200  A.  D.5  Something  must  fill  the  gap 
in  higher  education. 

Crusades,  travel,  discoveries. —  We  must  also  appreciate 
the  liberalizing  and  stimulating  force  of  the  crusades,  and  of 
travels,  discoveries,  and  other  influences  that  opened  minds,  en- 
couraged fresh  thought,  and  suggested  wider  relations  in  vari- 
ous directions.  Again  more  settled  times,  following  incursion 
and  invasion,  the  settling  of  the  new  and  the  fusing  of  new  and 
old  into  new  nations,  gave  opportunities  for  new  thought  and 
new  lines  of  development.  But  it  is  quite  as  important  for  our 
purpose  to  notice  two  phenomena  that  were  in  part  caused  by 
circumstances  already  noted.6 

Growth  of  cities. —  With  the  growth  of  civilization,  the 
stimulus  of  more  settled  times,  and  the  opening  up  of  new  trade 
routes,  old  cities  came  into  new  life  and  new  cities  grew.     More 

5  This  revival  was  ascribed  to  the  Arabs.  They  were  certainly  partly 
responsible  for  this  reviving  scholarship.  But  the  new  acquisitions 
were  due  also  to  a  generally  reviving  scholarship  and  to  a  consequent 
spirit  of  exploration  in  the  field  of  ancient  treasures.  See  also  Rashdall, 
op.  cit.,  1 :  68. 

6  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  95. 


216  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

than  this,  they  became  more  or  less  independent  factors.  Tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  financial  stress  of  crusaders  they  wrested 
from  their  feudal  lords,  secular  or  ecclesiastic,  charters  and 
privileges,  and  in  other  ways  made  themselves  separate  organi- 
zations or  associations  that  were  to  be  reckoned  with.7  They 
developed  a  tendency  to  break  away  from  ecclesiastic  schools 
and  establish  schools  better  calculated  to  meet  their  needs,  the 
forerunners  of  modern  public  schools. 

Guilds. —  Another  form  of  association  is  seen  in  the  trade 
guilds  that  grew  out  of  conditions  already  suggested  and  were 
a  commercial  convenience,  or  even  necessity,  before  other  forms 
of  federation  had  developed;  for  nations  were  not  strong 
enough  to  protect  their  frontiers ;  international  law  was  in  its 
crudest  form,  and  tariff  unions  had  not  been  thought  of.  As 
civilization  advanced  and  became  more  complex,  trades  became 
differentiated  and  these  trade  guilds  were  evolved,  forming,  in 
a  way,  independent  industrial  units,  as  the  cities  and  leagues 
were  independent  social  and  commercial  units.  All  were  asso- 
ciations for  mutual  protection  and  for  advancing  mutual 
interests. 

Specialization. —  Again  it  is  evident  that  with  the  new 
stimulus,  new  thought,  new  inventions  and  discoveries,  new 
studies, —  in  short  with  the  general  advance  of  the  growing 
times  that  have  been  briefly  characterized,  there  would  be  larger 
accumulations  of  knowledge  suggesting  differentiation  and 
specialization.  The  expert  and  the  scholar  would  inevitably 
appear. 

7  This  growth  of  cities  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena 
of  this  age,  and  the  one  that  eventually  had  the  most  important  bear- 
ing on  education.  So  alert  and  vigorous  were  townsmen  that  they  took 
advantage  of  every  circumstance  to  increase  the  strength  and  im- 
portance of  cities.  On  the  one  hand  kings  and  feudal  lords  favored 
them.  The  city's  industrial  development  and  general  wealth-produc- 
ing power  increased  the  value  and  importance  of  fiefs.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  men's  minds  were  occupied  with  wars,  which  were  almost  con- 
tinuous, the  towns  escaped  notice  and  in  a  way  stole  a  march  on  their 
superior  authorities.  They  grew  stronger  and  fixed  a  few  more  pegs 
in  their  position,  as  in  Germany.  See  Fisher,  Outlines  of  Universal 
History,  281.  Art  and  general  culture  found  easier  growth  in  these 
wide-awake  and  flourishing  towns.  The  towns  also  fostered  demo- 
cratic tendencies,  for  the  government  was  generally  of  the  type  of  a 
commonwealth. 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  217 

In  noting  these  changes  and  in  tracing  their  effects  in  schools 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  keep  in  mind  the  exceptional 
schools  mentioned  in  the  last  chapter, —  some,  perhaps  all  of 
them,  representing  a  continuous  tradition  from  old  Roman 
times.  Here  enterprising  study  and  teaching  were  carried  on, 
and  students  frequently  flocked  to  them  in  great  numbers,  some- 
times in  immense  numbers,  drawn  by  the  reputation  of  scholars 
who  made  their  temporary  or  permanent  home  there.  Here 
were  taught  the  liberal  arts,  and  doors  were  open  to  the  world. 
Some  of  these  schools  became  more  or  less  detached  from 
ecclesiasticism  and  its  organization  and  thus  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent institutions.  A  "  studium  publicum "  was  develop- 
ing. 

Private  initiative. —  It  is  true  of  practically  all  great  en- 
terprises that  private  initiative  and  private  effort  lay  the  foun- 
dations. It  was  to  be  expected  that  scholars  and  experts  would 
push  out  into  a  kind  of  independence,  under  the  educational 
conditions  that  have  been  referred  to.  Constantine  lectured  on 
medicine  at  Salerno,  Inerius  on  law  at  Bologna,  Abelard  on 
theology  at  Paris.  The  latter  was  attached  more  closely  to 
ecclesiastical  institutions  than  the  other  two,  yet  in  spirit 
belonged  to  their  number.  Their  lectures  were  open  to  all. 
What  more  natural  than  that  these  scholastic  gatherings  should 
form  centers  about  which  teachers  in  all  known  arts  and 
sciences  should  gather,  and  that  they  should  organize  for 
mutual  benefit  and  support. 

Rise  of  a  new  school. —  Just  this  occurred.  An  associa- 
tion of  teachers  and  scholars  was  formed,  entirely  free  from 
ecclesiastic  and  civil  control  and  open  to  all  the  world.  It 
was  a  natural  growth,  not  an  artificial  creation  of  some  super- 
imposed authority.  It  made  its  own  laws  and  governed  its 
own  adherents  in  all  things,  independently  of  the  civil  com- 
munity in  which  it  was  located.  In  a  way  it  was  a  new  order, 
but  one  that  was  not  limited  and  confined  as  other  orders.  It 
had  not  even  a  charter.  It  was  self-created  and  found  its 
end  in  itself.  But  both  ecclesiastic  and  civil  authorities  saw 
its  importance,  gave  it  place,  and  even  courted  it.  This  organi- 
zation with  these  simple  characteristics  was  the  University, — 


218  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

a  veritable  studium  publicum.8  A  new  school  form  had  come 
into  existence.  It  began  before  Saracenic  schools  went  down, 
and  because  of  this  loss  it  multiplied  the  more  rapidly. 

The  university  a  fusion.  Due  to  various  influences. — 
The  Homeric  poems  represent  a  fusion  of  older  ballad  ele- 
ments under  the  influence  of  a  new  spirit,  though  we  hardly 
know  how  the  fusion  took  place.  So  the  university  represents 
a  fusion  of  various  educational  movements  and  ideas,  though 
we  can  hardly  explain  how  it  came  about.  From  the  Saracenic 
movement  and  the  exceptional  men  of  the  monasteries  came 
the  scholarship  and  models  for  successful  schools  of  advanced 
grade.  From  advancing  knowledge  in  various  lines,  accumu- 
lating new  and  more  complex  material,  came  the  need  of  spe- 
cialists and  experts.  From  the  few  great  schools,  like  the 
Cathedral  School  of  Paris,  came  examples  of  brilliant  scholars 
and  thronging  students.  From  cities,  leagues,  and  guilds  came 
models  of  free  and  independent  associations.  All  were  neces- 
sary for  the  product.9 

The  new  scholarship  first  centers  on  the  classics,  then  on 
logic. —  One  of  the  first  results  of  the  new  ideals  of  scholar- 
ship in  European  universities  was  a  more  enterprising  study  of 
classical  literature  ("grammar,"  in  the  larger  sense)  that 
was  now  coming  back  to  something  of  its  pristine  vigor.  But 
from  what  was  said  as  to  the  ideals  of  the  period  we  are  pre- 
pared to  find  that  in  the  curriculum  fostered  by  the  new 
school-form  the  incidence  of  effort  eventually  fell  on  logic 
rather  than  on  grammar.  Logic  was  the  center  and  almost  the 
substance  of  school  work.  University  scholars  steeped  them- 
selves in  it;  even  school  boys  aped  it.  The  university  curricu- 
lum was  grammar,  rhetoric,1**  and  logic,  with  logic  as  the 
element  which  gave  consistency  and  direction  and  meaning 
to  all.  The  classics  were  pushed  aside  and  grammar  was 
made  a  boy's  task.11     Logic  now  became  more  than  a  formal 

8  Because  the  new  school  was  open  to  the  world  the  first  distinctive 
name  was  Studium  Generale,  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  173. 

9  See  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  87  ff.,  91  ff. ;  Savigny,  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ, 
22:273ff. ;  Howard,  Evolution  of  the  Univ.,  5  ff. ;  Compayre,  Abelard, 
5,  6,  28,  33;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  I:  50;  II:  150  f. ;  Stedman,  Oxford,  Its 
Life  and  Schools,  3,  4. 

10  Meagre,  bare  and  formal,  rather  than  cultural. 

11  In  the  Middle  Ages  Latin  was  regarded  as  an  instrument  for  the 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  219 

and  perfunctory  study.  It  developed  life, —  was  made  con- 
crete. It  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  experiments  in 
concentration  ever  inaugurated.12 

Contrast  with  the  previous  period. —  This  school  curricu- 
lum, it  will  be  noted,  was  the  same  in  name  as  that  given  for 
the  preceding  period.  The  difference  lay,  on  the  one  hand,  in 
emphasis,  organization,  and  application,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
spirit  or  essence.  The  religious  tone  that  characterized  the 
earlier  epoch  was  gone.  A  secular  spirit  had  settled  down  on 
the  new  education.  Both  periods,  probably,  had  tended  to 
reduce  knowledge  of  the  Bible  to  a  minimum.  At  any  rate 
the  university  trained  priest,  "  unless  he  was  a  theologian 
or  a  canonist,  was  not  supposed  to  know  anything  of  the  Bible 
except  what  was  contained  in  his  missal  and  breviary."  13 

This  was  the  initial  curriculum  of  the  university  —  the 
"  arts  course."  Beyond  it  was  the  M.  A.  work  in  philosophy, 
and  the  graduate  work  in  the  professions. 

"  Requirements  for  admission." —  The  requirements  for 
undertaking  the  "  arts  course  "  were  few  and  simple.  An  ele- 
mentary knowledge  of  grammar  (i.  e.  Latin  grammar),  which 
may  safely  be  interpreted  as  a  knowledge  of  grammar  in  the 
ordinary  sense,  together  with  ability  to  read  and  write  simple 
Latin  and  to  use  Latin  in  common  conversation,  admitted  one 
to  the  university.14  It  would  thus  seem  to  be  equivalent  to 
admitting  to  our  universities  students  who  have  a  correspond- 
ing knowledge  of  English.15  The  preparation  was  often  super- 
ficial. In  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  a  "  mere  smattering 
of  the  rules  of  Priscian  and  Donatus."  As  one  author  pic- 
turesquely puts  it,  the  boy, 

expression  of  thought  rather  than  an  instrument  of  mental  discipline. 
Particularly  was  this  true  in  the  epoch  under  consideration.  Clark, 
op.  cit.,  58. 

12  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  70;  II :  484,  486,  497,  600-1,  674;  Ziegler,  op.  cit., 
32;  Laurie,  Renaissance  and  the  School,  (School  Rev.  4:207ff.)  ;  Rise 
and  Const,  of  Univ.,  268;  Compayre,  Abelard,  68;  191-3;  Paulsen, 
German  Univ.,  20;  Mullinger,  Univ.  of  Camb.,  252,  254. 

13  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II :  700-1. 

14  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  201 ;  II :  594  ff. ;  Mullinger,  Univ.  Cambridge, 
369- 

15  Results  were  equally  as  disappointing  as  results  now  in  English, 
and  for  similar  reasons, —  lack  of  life  and  real  pedagogical  work  in 
teaching  the  subject. 


220  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

"  as  soon  as  he  had  learned  the  rules  of  grammar  and  the  vocabu- 
lary of  conversational  Latin  in  ordinary  use,  hastened  to  acquire 
the  subtle  and  unliterary  jargon  that  would  enable  him  to  hold 
his  own  in  the  arena  of  the  schools."  16 

This  is  hardly  a  scientific  statement,  but  from  what  has  been 
said  the  general  practice  is  fairly  clear.  Testimony  as  to  the 
standard  of  entrance  requirements  seems  definite  and  conclusive. 

The  preparatory  school. —  Many  of  the  pupils  who 
thronged  the  university  were  so  poorly  prepared  that  the  uni- 
versity was  obliged  in  self-defense  to  establish  preparatory 
schools  17  of  its  own  within  its  own  precincts.  This  is  a  com- 
mentary not  only  on  the  character  of  the  outside  schools,  but 
on  the  popularity  of  the  university.  Thus  began  a  university 
influence  that  was  far  and  long  reaching.  The  preparatory 
school  provided  for  a  third  grade  of  instruction  inside  the 
university,  so  that  the  "  arts  course  "  became  the  center  of  the 
organization. 

Aim  and  method. —  The  aim  or  ideal  of  this  new  school 
was  not  so  much  to  add  to  the  sum  of  knowledge,  or  even  to 
develop  power  to  do  this  in  the  post-graduate  world,  as  to  get 
possession  and  give  possession  of  old  knowledge  from  a  new 
point  of  view,  and  to  formulate.  In  the  undergraduate  schools 
the  ideal  resolved  itself  into  the  mastery  of  standard  text- 
books by  a  new  process  that  involved  I,  painstaking  and  minute 
analysis  of  the  work  to  be  studied ;  2,  the  interpretation  and 
logical  formulation  of  all  parts  that  suggested  pros  and  cons; 

16  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  68. 

17  These  schools  were  sometimes  called  paedagogia. 

It  would  seem  that  grammar  schools  readily  clustered  around  the 
university.  In  fact,  the  university  was  once  no  more  than  a  grammar 
school  itself.  The  seat  of  a  university  was  sometimes,  if  not  always, 
preoccupied  by  grammar  schools.  These  grammar  schools  often  came 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  university;  sometimes  they  remained  dis- 
tinct with  a  "  Magister  Glomeriae "  at  the  head  of  the  organization. 
The  exact  state  of  things  appears  to  be  far  from  clear.  The  university 
preparatory  school,  it  would  seem,  was  sometimes  a  special  creation  of 
the  university,  sometimes  one  of  these  convenient  grammar  schools 
absorbed  by  the  university.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether 
the  university  ever  "  affiliated  "  a  grammar  school.  It  looks  somewhat 
as  though  the  schools  of  the  Magister  Glomeriae  were  of  this  sort.  See 
Mullinger,  Univ.  of  Cambridge,  140,  340-3;  Brodrick,  Oxford,  1-70; 
Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  11:597-8,  603;  Paulsen,  op.  cit.,  20;  Laurie,  School 
Review,  4 :  207  ff . 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  221 

3,  voluminous  note  taking  and  the  "  getting  up  "  of  notes ; 

4,  accurate  recitation.  As  a  whole,  at  its  best,  it  carried  with 
it  great  thoroughness,18  but  it  often  fell  below  this  best.  Much 
of  this  was  new  to  the  schools.  But  old  elements  of  method 
were  found  side  by  side  with  it, —  dictation  ( for  books  were 
still  scarce),  copying,  recopying,  memory  work  (that  probably 
included  much  rote-learning),19  practice  exercises,  and  the 
practical  use  of  Latin  in  school-home  and  school-room.  Pre- 
paratory schools  probably  used  the  old  method  that  has  been 
described  in  previous  chapters,  the  main  points  of  which  appear 
in  the  statement  just  made  as  to  old  elements  of  method.  But 
even  they  did  not  escape  the  dialectic  furor.20  "  Fellows " 
of  the  university  might  "  pose  "  school  boys  in  the  refectory, 
before  they  were  allowed  to  enjoy  the  meal,  and  the  boys  of 
the  school  at  a  much  later  date  gathered  in  formal  or  informal 
groups  and  argued  points  of  grammar  till  the  controversy 
grew  so  warm  that  satchels  served  for  arguments.  Logic 
was  everywhere,  therefore,  the  characteristic  feature  of 
method,  as  well  as  a  subject  of  study.21 

Equipment. —  The  surroundings  of  education  still  showed 
monastic  simplicity  and  severity.  The  boys  sat  on  grass- 
strewn  floors  and  were  led  or  forced  by  stern  discipline.22  It  is 
interesting  to  note  also  that  pupil-teaching  was  a  well-estab- 
lished feature  in  the  organization  of  instruction. 

The  first  degree. —  An  examination  marked  the  close  of 

18  Scholastic  education,  says  Rashdall,  at  least  aimed  at  getting  at 
the  bottom  of  things.  Though  words  were  allowed  to  take  the  place  of 
things,  they  were  not  allowed  to  take  the  place  of  thought.  See  Rash- 
dall, op.  cit.,  11:705-6;   Compayre,  Abelard,   167  ff. 

19  Verse-grammars  appear  as  early  as  the  13th  century.  This  was 
a  concession  to  rote-learning,  as  verse  made  grammar  easier  to  "  com- 
mit to  memory."  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  269  ff. ;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  11:627,  649. 
Rules  regulating  minute  points  of  method  were  sometimes  made.  See 
Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 1 :  438  f . 

20  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II :  497,  603 ;  Eggleston,  Transit  of  Civilization, 
260. 

21  On  the  general  subject  of  method  see  Mullinger,  Univ.  of  Camb., 
159.  359-60,  371-2;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1:433-4,  11:497;  Conf.  1 :  248  ff. ; 
Paulsen,  op.  cit.,  22  ff.;  Compayre,  Abelard,  170,  188-9;  Laurie,  op.  cit., 
269  ff.,  272,  282.  A  good  sketch  of  a  grammar  school  method,  which 
we  may  assume  represented  the  maximum  and  not  the  average  of 
the  period  for  the  secondary  school,  is  given  by  Rashdall,  op.  cit., 
II :  603.     For  a  more  detailed  account  of  method  see  Appendix  1-6. 

22  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  438 ;  II :  605  ff.,  665  ff. ;  Compayre,  Abelard,  170. 


222  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

the  first  stage  of  university  study.  Those  who  successfully 
completed  it  received  the  first  degree,  which  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  university  represented  no  fixed  time  limits,  but 
later  came  to  signify  the  successful  completion  of  a  four-year 
curriculum.  At  the  beginning,  as  in  more  modern  times,  it 
often  represented  little  serious  study.  University  student 
habits  persisted  through  centuries.23 

Such  was  the  new  school.  It  was  a  distinctive  one.  But 
with  all  that  was  new  and  attractive  there  was  still  much  that 
was  bare,  formal,  and  superficial.24  Quite  possibly  it  outdid 
the  schools  of  the  last  period  in  some  of  these  particulars. 

The  "arts  course"  of  a  secondary  nature. — We  must  not 
be  misled  here  by  the  term  university.  In  the  early  university 
we  evidently  have  still  largely  to  do  with  secondary  education. 
The  preparatory  department  was  of  course  secondary,  or  bet- 
ter, tertiary.25  The  "  arts  course,"  i.  e.,  all  below  the  M.  A., 
or  graduate,  work,  was  also  plainly  secondary.  The  studies 
were  secondary  studies.  Apparently  very  elementary  work 
was  done  in  them.26  It  was  only  as  he  entered  on  his  M.  A. 
study  that  the  student  really  came  into  the  province  of  uni- 
versity or  higher  education.  But  the  most  convincing  evidence 
of  the  secondary  nature  of  university  education  is  the  age  of 

23  There  has  recently  been  a  decided  growth  in  the  amount  of  effective 
study  in  university  education. 

24  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II :  5Q5 ;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  273;  Paulsen,  op.  cit., 
21  f. ;  London  Quar.  Rev.  58:  524  ff.  Conf.  Milton's  characterization  of 
university  inheritances  from  this  age, —  Laurie,  Educ.  Opin.  from  the 
Renais.,  172-3  ;  Appendix  1 :  7. 

25  Mullinger's  statement  (Univ.  of  Camb.,  369)  that  the  standard  of 
admission  varied  from  a  moderate  knowledge  of  grammar  to  the  com- 
plete trivium,  might  seem  at  variance  with  this  conclusion,  but  this  evi- 
dently means,  if  it  applied  to  the  mediaeval  period  exclusively,  that 
more  advanced  preparation  admitted  to  more  advanced  work,  or  to  the 
professional  schools,  though,  in  the  unsystematized  condition  of  educa- 
tion, it  may  mean  that  standards  varied  very  much  in  the  secondary 
schools. 

26  Mullinger  (Univ.  of  Camb.,  340-1)  says  that  the  complete  trivium 
followed  by  the  more  formidable  quadrivium  was  far  beyond  the  am- 
bitions and  resources  of  the  ordinary  scholar.  His  aim  was  to  enter 
orders  and  gain  the  title  of  "  Sir,"  and  to  obtain  a  license  to  teach  Latin, 
for  which  the  qualifications  were  slight  and  the  degree  of  "  master  of 
grammar"  was  sufficient.  See  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II:  508  f.  Such  de- 
grees continued  to  be  given  for  some  time  after  the  rise  of  universities. 
Grammar  work  was  of  a  very  elementary  character,  which  certainly 
suggested  secondary  work. 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  223 

the  boys.  It  was  the  secondary  age.  Boys  entered  the  uni- 
versity in  the  early  years  of  adolescence,  ranging  from  thirteen 
to  sixteen.  In  fact  the  first  degree  might  be  taken  as  early 
as  fourteen.  "  Boys  in  their  teens  chattered  Aristotle."  If 
we  add  the  preparatory  boys,  who  might  enter  the  university  as 
early  as  eight  or  nine,  the  boyish  nature  of  a  part  of  uni- 
versity life  is  still  further  emphasized.27  The  university  found 
to  its  cost  that  it  was  concerned  with  secondary  pupils.  Uni- 
versity freedom  worked  havoc  among  them,  which  doubtless 
gave  a  strong  argument  for  the  establishment  of  "  hospitia," 
or  "  colleges,"  which  were  at  first  simply  halls  of  monastic  type 
where  boys  might  be  under  the  surveillance  of  principal  or 
supervisor  and  get  the  benefit  of  his  direction,  advice,  and  disci- 
pline.28 With  the  "college"  came  more  individual  work  with 
students.  In  time  it  became  convenient  to  have  most  of  the 
instruction  there. 

Monastic  and  episcopal  schools. —  Side  by  side  with  the 
university  existed  the  old  monastic  and  episcopal  schools.29 
They  offered  a  secondary  curriculum  similar  in  name,  and 
sometimes  even  equal  in  scope,  to  that  of  the  university.  But 
sometimes,  at  least  in  the  earlier  period,  the  regular  trivium 
faded  almost  to  the  vanishing  point,  and  this  was  probably  one 
of  the  circumstances  that  forced  preparatory  schools  on  the 
universities.30  The  decadence  is  a  tribute  also  to  the  popu- 
larity of  the  universities. 

Their  method. —  The  general  character  of  the  training  in 
these  schools  was  bound  to  be  colored  by  their  regular  associa- 
tions and  their  history,  but  it  is  probable  that  they  partook,  in 
greater  or  less  degree,  of  the  prevailing  method,  and  logicalized 
their  courses.81  Here  again  the  prerequisite  for  undertaking 
the  work  was  mere  school  boy  preparation  of  an  extremely 
elementary  character,  as  shown  in  the  last  chapter.     These 

27  Compayre,  Abelard,  191 ;  Paulsen,  German  Educ,  25-6 ;  see  Rash- 
dall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  479,  492 ;  II :  484-6,  497,  704. 

28  Compayre,  Abelard,  191-4 ;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  482  ff. 

29  Compayre,  op.  cit.,  5-8 ;  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  68-70,  207-8 ;  Nohle, 
op.  cit.,  19;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II :  601. 

30  See  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  70,  161,  207-8. 

31 "  The  one  stimulating  and  interesting  morsel  which  a  monastic 
teacher  could  place  before  a  hungry  intellect  was  a  morsel  of  logic," — 
Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  38. 


224  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

facts  would  seem  to  strengthen  the  position  taken  as  to  the 
"  secondary  "  nature  of  the  introductory  university  work,  the 
"  arts  course."  32 

In  addition  to  the  two  secondary  schools  already  referred 
to  we  find  a  third,  modeled  after  the  second  but  owing 
allegiance  to  a  different  authority.33  This,  however,  must  form 
the  subject  of  a  separate  chapter. 

Summary. —  We  have  then  for  this  period  a  secondary 
school  scheme  that  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

Aim :  —  Knowledge  rather  than  culture ;  discussion  rather 
than  application.  Knowledge  and  intellectual  activity  have 
become  ends  in  themselves.3* 

Curriculum 35 :  —  Latin  grammar, —  Donatus,  Priscian,  Alex- 
ander de  Villa  Dei.36 

Vergil,  Cicero,  etc.,  read,  but  to  interpret  grammar. 

Logic,  the  central  feature  monopolizing  attention. 

Rhetoric,  small  amount,  bare,  formal.37 

32  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  269,  remarks  of  the  early  university  course  that 
it  was  no  better  than  Bernard  of  Chartres  was  giving. 

33  The  city  school. 

a4  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II:  692;  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  13-14;  Laurie,  op.  cit., 
269  ff.,  272-3 ;  Compayre,  op.  cit.,  167  ft. 

35  See  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  57-8,  99,  100,  140,  167,  205-6,  238,  298,  325-7, 
340-3.  349  ff-5  Compayre,  op.  cit.,  175  f.,  182;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  63-72, 
433-37;  II:  137-8,  57i,  651,  674;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  269,  274,  281;  Nohle, 
op.  cit.,  13  ff. ;  De  Montmorency,  op.  cit.,  75-77 ;  Paulsen,  German  Educ, 
Chap.  III.     But  conf.  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  243. 

36  Priscian's  grammar  at  the  hands  of  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei  was 
put  into  verse  form  to  make  committing  more  palatable.  It  was  based, 
in  part  at  least,  on  mediaeval  Latin,  showing  that  the  language  was 
alive  and  growing.     See  Clark,  op.  cit.,  59. 

Grammar  was  still  an  insistent  study,  but  it  was  not  so  much  an 
end  in  itself,  the  sum  of  discipline.  It  was  regarded  as  a  means  to 
Latin  disputation,  an  unwelcome,  but  necessary  introduction  to  the  rich 
fields  of  logic.  Soon  it  sank  into  an  end  in  itself  again.  Greek  also 
is  to  be  noticed  as  one  of  the  studies  of  the  scholastic  period.  But  it 
was  a  study  for  the  few  and  could  hardly  be  properly  regarded  as  a 
secondary  subject.  It  has  been  called  the  most  important  element  in 
scholastic  contributions  to  education,  but  it  could  be  so  regarded  only 
in  the  sense  that  the  University  called  it,  or  began  to  call  it,  to  men's 
attention.  It  took  its  place  in  the  secondary  curriculum  only  at  a  much 
later  date.  There  were,  however,  exceptional  schools.  Greek  was 
epoken  in  Southern  Italy  and  in  Spain  as  late  as  the  time  of  the 
Norman  Conquest.  There  were  even  Greek  schools.  Old  customs 
lingered  in  secluded  places.     See  Clark,  op.  cit.,  36  ff. 

37  Mathematics  and  rhetoric  were  of  so  little  moment  that  they  were 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  225 

Method:  —  1.  The  mastering  of  elementary  Latin  by  old 
methods,  including  dictation,  note  work,  and  practice.  2.  The 
thorough  mastering  of  standard  text-books  gained  by  accurate 
learning  of  their  content.  Memorizing  was  prominent,  but 
notes  elucidating  the  text  were  numerous  and  were  carefully 
learned.  Rhetoric  and  logic  were  studied  from  epitomes. 
The  former  consisted  of  a  collection  of  formal  rules  and  hence 
was  hardly  a  source  of  literary  inspiration.  3.  Vigorous  and 
formal  discussion  of  the  content  of  books.  It  is  evident  that 
interest  centered  in  method  rather  than  in  content,  except  in 
the  case  of  logic,  which  is  itself  method  and  form  rather  than 
content.  Method  was  thus,  from  all  points  of  view,  the 
supreme  object  of  study.38 

Results: — Altogether  the  period  stands  for  reproduction, 
formulation,  and  method,  not  acquisition  by  experiment  and 
discovery. 

Shifting  of  aims  and  ideals  during  the  period. —  But  it  was 
not  all  as  simple  and  definite  as  it  would  appear  from  this 
scheme.  At  different  stages  in  the  epoch  there  was  a  shift- 
ing of  aims,  ideals  and  programs.39  The  scheme  here  given 
was  simply  the  typical  one  of  the  period. 

Evaluation  of  the  period. —  Doubtless  the  university  period 
often  violated  what  are  to  us  some  of  the  most  obvious  peda- 
gogical principles.  There  was  much  bareness,  considering  the 
culture  value  of  the  material  and  the  form  through  which  the 
boys  were  taken  toward  the  post-secondary  goal.  Students 
often  found  themselves  beyond  their  depth,  because  order, 
method,  and  curriculum  were  not  adapted  to  them.     The  great 

used  for  holiday  treats, —  which  was  perhaps  a  fortunate  circumstance 
for  producing  interest,  unless  they  were  used  as  the  strenuous  Sturm 
later  used  his  Sunday  tasks.     See  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II :  674. 

38  Various  points  as  to  method  may  be  found  in  the  following  refer- 
ences :  —  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  359-60,  370-71 ;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  433  ;  II : 
497.  597-8.  603 ;  Compayre,  op.  cit.,  167  ff. ;  Hazlitt,  Schools,  Schoolmas- 
ters, and  School-books,  14;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  272,  282;  Paulsen  Ger- 
man Univ.,  22  ff.;  Do.,  German  Education,  Chapter  III;  Appendix  1:5. 

Lower  schools  copied  university  methods.  University  students,  as 
pointed  out  in  the  text,  were  often  mere  boys  studying  the  elements. 
All  in  all  the  main  trend  in  secondary  school  method  is  rather  clear. 

39  Something  of  this  shifting  was  noted  on  page  218.  But  there  was 
more  than  this.  A  brief  description  of  three  well-marked  periods  will 
be  found  in  Appendix  2. 


t 


226  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

discovery  of  the  day  filled  men's  minds  and  they  gave  little 
scientific  thought  to  the  pedagogy  of  its  attainment.  Milton 
feelingly  complains  of  the  inadequacy  of  university  education 
of  his  day,40  though  it  was  fresher  and  probably  more  efficient 
then  than  later.  But  in  spite  of  all  errors  there  was  a  broad- 
ening of  outlook,  a  breaking  away  from  forms  and  limits  that 
cramped  the  intellect  of  the  previous  period,  and  a  quickening 
and  sharpening  of  thought  better  represented  by  such  esti- 
mates as  the  following: 

"  In  a  sense  mediaeval  education  was  too  practical ;  it  trained 
pure  intellect,  gave  habits  of  labor,  subtlety,  heroic  industry, 
and  intense  application,  but  it  left  uncultivated  imagination, 
taste,  and  sense  of  beauty;  it  trained  to  think  rather  than  to 
enjoy."  41 

There  must  have  been  an  interest,  an  enthusiasm,  that  had 
no  raison  d'etre  before.  We  can  feel  it  even  at  this  distance. 
There  was  thus  produced  an  alertness  and  acuteness  that  pre- 
pared the  way  for  revising  educational  material  and  developing 
more  fruitful  educational  ideas.  As  Laurie  says,  the  contrast 
with  the  "  dead  uniformity  of  previous  centuries "  was 
noticeable. 

In  this  intense  occupation  it  is  perhaps  not  strange  that  the 
emotional  side  of  life  was  neglected  and  that  religion  sank  to 
a  mere  intellectual  shadow  or  hardly  that.42 

The  university  thus  spread  a  certain  kind  of  training,  and 
its  ideals  were  so  conspicuous  and  so  well  known  that  a  great 
impress  was  made. 

It  will  be  worth  while  in  conclusion  to  note  the  scope  of  edu- 
cational interest  and  refer  to  some  specific  contributions  of  the 
period  that  have  not  yet  been  indicated. 

How  far  education  extended  among  the  people. —  In  spite 
of  the  enthusiasm  that  the  new  education  excited,  and  the 
large  number  of  students  attracted  by  it,  few,  relatively  speak- 
ing, participated  in  the  privileges  of  the  schools,  and  of  these 
the   majority   got   little  or   nothing  of   learning  or   culture, 

40  See  Appendix  1 :  6. 

41  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II:  707;  see  also  London  Quarterly  Review,  58: 
524  flf. ;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  273-4;  Rashdall,  op  cit.,  II  :  596,  707. 

42  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  692-3,  700-1.     See  Appendix  1 :  7. 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  227 

because  of  lack  of  disposition  or  lack  of  preparation  or  both. 
Among  the  general  population  education  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury was  almost  entirely  neglected.  Under  Lanfranc,  it  is 
said,  the  Normans  received  the  first  rudiments  of  literature. 
Before  this,  under  the  "  Six  Dukes  of  Normandy,"  "  scarce 
any  Norman  devoted  himself  to  liberal  studies."  For  the 
people  education  was  about  what  it  had  been  for  some  time. 

Some  contributions  of  the  period.  1.  Growth  of  Latin. — 
The  period  contributed  noticeably  to  the  growth  of  the  Latin 
language.  Latin  was  still  the  language  of  the  schools,  and  in 
a  degree  the  language  of  life,43  —  a  living  language.  It  is  well 
in  this  connection  to  recall  the  fact  that  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lar grammars  for  centuries  (that  of  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei) 
was  based  on  mediaeval  Latin.  Notwithstanding  the  neglect 
of  "  grammar  "  and  of  classical  Latin,  the  demands  that  came 
from  new  ideas  reacted  on  Latin  in  such  a  way  as  to  add  new 
vigor  to  its  life;  it  was  put  to  new  uses  and  had  to  express 
new  thoughts  and  be  moulded  to  new  forms.  Vocabulary  was 
thus  increased  and  scope  and  power  of  expression  were 
enlarged.  "  The  Latin  language,"  says  Rashdall,  "  originally 
rigid,  inflexible,  poor  in  vocabulary,  and  almost  incapable  of 
expressing  a  philosophical  idea,  became,  in  the  hands  of 
mediaeval  thinkers,  flexible,  subtle  and  elastic." 44  Later, 
Latin  as  a  living  language  was  killed  "  by  the  Ciceronian 
pedantry  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries."  45  But 
modern  languages  were  soon  to  grow,  and  Latin  could  not 
hope  long  to  be  a  living  language,  even  in  philosophy. 

2.  Latin  literature. —  There  were  some  additions  to  Latin 
literature  during  the  period,  though  it  was  conspicuously  a  non- 
creative  age  in  general.  The  Troilus  of  Albertus  Standensis, 
the  Catena  Goliardi,  the  Gesta  Romanorum,  and  metrical 
romances  and  annals,  indicate  that  the  history  of  Latin  litera- 
ture cannot  pass  over  the  period  in  silence;  but  the  typical 
literary  productions  were  rhymed  lives  of  the  saints  and  metri- 
cal chronicles,  together  with  formulations  of  theological 
dogma.46 

430rdericus  Vitalis,  1:423;   II:  40;  Clark,  op.  cit.,  38-40. 

44  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  11:596. 

45  See  Clark,  op.  cit.,  35,  108-9;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II:  596. 

46  We  should  also  note  the  preparation  of  a  new  grammar  which  was 


228  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

3.  Text  book  idea. —  The  idea  of  text-books,  as  already 
shown,  was  very  prominent,  because  one  of  the  typical  school 
tasks  was  the  mastering  of  certain  standard  books  that  were 
precious  because  of  their  scarcity. 

4.  Construing. —  Construing,  begun  before  the  period, 
became  a  stereotyped  element  of  method  at  this  time  and  has 
persisted  almost  to  the  present  time.  It  fitted  admirably 
the  analytical  tendency  that  was  so  conspicuous,  and  hence 
impressed  itself  deeply  on  the  schools. 

5.  Gradation  of  schools. —  The  gradation  of  schools  re- 
ceived more  attention.  Certain  requirements  were  established 
for  passing  from  one  grade  to  another,  certain  tests  were  given, 
and  certain  signs 47  and  symbols  marked  the  fulfilment  of  the 
requirements.  Thus  the  ideas  of  examinations,  curriculum, 
and  degrees  became  fixed  in  education. 

6.  Reformers  —  Modern  pedagogical  writers  began  to 
appear.  A  few  men  were  giving  expression  to  their  insight 
into  better  things  in  method  and  matter.  The  tremendous 
intellectual  activity  that  was  rife  was  bound  to  yield  some 
results  in  this  direction.  Pedagogical  writing,  it  is  true,  did 
not  serve  to  alter  the  character  of  method  at  the  time ; 
there  was  not  enough  of  it  to  have  much  effect  on  the 
actual  practice  of  the  day ;  but  it  foreshadowed  a  new  era  in 
education.48 

The  period  looks  modern. —  The  early  university  period 
in  many  ways  looks  modern  rather  than  mediaeval.  It  broke 
away  from  the  forms  of  the  past.  It  was  laying  the  foundation 
for  still  further  advance.  Some  characteristic  details  of  the 
time  seem  puerile  and  have  excited  ridicule  and  disparage- 
ment, but  we  must  judge  the  period  by  its  trend.  Looking 
behind  the  underbrush  that  skirts  the  period  we  discover  sub- 
stantial services.  We  shall  define  the  period  a  little  more 
closely  and,  perhaps,  symbolically,  if  we  single  out  its  most 

a  favorite  for  so  long, —  in  fact  to  the   16th  century.    This  was  the 
grammar  of  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei  mentioned  before. 

47  Of  these  signs  or  symbols  there  were  four, —  the  degrees  of  M.  G., 
A.  B.,  A.  M.,  and  the  Doctorate.     The  first,  however,  soon  disappeared. 

48  In  this  connection  it  may  be  interesting  to  carry  the  topic  one 
step  further  and  note  a  contribution  of  the  University  proper,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  its  Secondary  department.     See  Appendix  1 :  7. 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  229 

characteristic  services,  which  will  come  more  clearly  to  view 
by  comparison  with  other  epochs. 

A  brief  survey  of  the  contributions  of  previous  epochs. — 

Primitive  civilization  developed  the  rudiments  of  our  secondary 
curriculum.  The  story  method  of  imparting  and  the  process 
of  memorizing  appeared.  As  far  as  concerned  education,  rote- 
learning  was  seized  upon  instinctively  as  the  one  necessary 
feature  of  the  educational  process,  agreeing,  as  we  have  seen, 
with  the  race  ideal  that  made  the  integrity  of  the  tribe  and  the 
perpetuation  of  its  ideas  supreme.  Outside  of  formal  educa- 
tion, however,  there  was,  of  course,  much  that  was  natural  and 
concrete. 

The  next  epoch  developed  in  full  form,  and  finally  in  great 
detail,  the  linguistic  part  of  the  curriculum.  It  also  introduced 
mathematics  in  the  form  of  geometry  and  arithmetic.  To 
geometry  it  gave  remarkable  development.  Arithmetic  it  left 
in  crude  and  cumbrous  form  that  remained  till  modern  times. 
In  the  direction  of  method  the  period  instinctively  turned  to 
objective  work  in  number,  wrought  out  the  abstract  method 
in  mathematics,  and  the  formal  or  classical  scheme  of  lan- 
guage teaching.49  At  the  same  time  it  developed  the  dialectic 
mode  of  approaching  a  subject,  though  this  remained  a  minor 
element  of  method  in  the  schools  for  many  centuries. 

The  next  period  was  a  transition  one.  New  forces  had 
entered  the  educational  field, —  those  represented  by  the  peda- 
gogy of  the  Gospels.  They  influenced  education  at  first  only 
in  a  narrow  and  limited  way,  though  in  an  impressive  manner 
and  with  important  results.  They  worked  themselves  out  more 
fully  later.  In  the  schools  it  was  a  period  that  mingled  new 
and  old  without  producing  any  decisive  form. 

In  the  fourth  period,  representing  the  centuries  between  500 
and  1000  A.  D.,  the  religious  school  was  developed,  a  formal 
religious  element  was  added  to  the  curriculum,  and  older  ele- 
ments were  minimized.     Method  became  bare  and  formal. 

Services   of   the   present   epoch.     General. —  What   then 

49  It  should  be  remembered  that  this,  in  the  epoch  of  its  development, 
included  much  that  was  concrete,  as  seen  in  Chapter  IX.  In  later 
epochs,  however,  this  dropped  out,  and  the  "  classical  method  "  became 
purely  abstract  and  formal. 


230  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

shall  we  say  the  period  now  under  discussion  added  to  general 
education  ?  Old  emphases  were  abandoned, —  even  religion  was 
slighted,  and  everything  was  made  subordinate  and  subservient 
to  the  new  subject,  logic,  which,  though  developed  centuries 
before,  now  first  came  to  be  a  regular  school  subject,  and  a  sec- 
ondary school  subject  at  that.50  In  pedagogics  the  analytic 
and  syllogistic  method  appeared  and  held  the  field. 

Special  —  The  preparatory  school. —  The  characteristic  con- 
tributions of  the  period  of  early  universities,  however,  seem 
to  lie  in  other  directions.  It  developed  the  preparatory  school. 
Old  grammar  schools  became  "  feeders  " ;  but,  particularly,  the 
university  took  within  its  precincts  and  under  its  jurisdiction 
a  preparatory  school  of  its  own  that  played  a  large  part  till  the 
last  century,  and  even  now  holds  its  place  in  certain  quarters 
where  conditions  similar  to  those  that  gave  it  birth  exist,  or 
where  a  certain  educational  exclusiveness  is  desired. 

A  secondary  school  in  name,  as  well  as  in  fact. —  The 
school  of  the  young  adolescent  for  the  first  time  in  a 
thousand  years  became  a  secondary  school  and  became  such  in 
a  new  and  more  definite  manner;  there  had  grown  up  above 
it  a  new  institution  thoroughly  organized  and  far  more  distinct 
from  it  than  the  old  "rhetorical  "  school,  as  distinguished  from 
the  "  grammar  "  school ;  for  rhetorical  training  was  but  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  grammar  training,  and  the  lines  of  demarcation 
were  so  indefinite  that  they  were  often  lost  sight  of.51  This 
making  of  the  university  a  fully  distinct  and  separate  institu- 
tion, with  new  aims  and  new  methods,  and  the  attachment  of 
the  older  school  to  it  as  a  preparatory  school  was  a  notable 
event  in  the  education  of  that  time.52  More  pointed  and  potent 
than  before  became  the  influence  of  the  higher  school  on  the 
lower.     Aims,    curriculum,   and   method   were   modified   and 

50  The  logic  of  Quiutilian  was  a  far  different  study  and  was  also  a 
correlated  subject. 

51  Note  Quintilian's  complaint  in  Book  I  of  his  "  Institutes." 

_  52  Of  course  the  new  relation  was  not  uniform,  for  there  were  varia- 
tions and  changes  as  time  wore  on.  There  are  epochs  in  the  develop- 
ment _  of  this  relation  that  will  be  considered  later.  But  what  has  been 
said  is  a  fair  characterization  of  the  whole  period.  This  special  rela- 
tion of  university  and  secondary  school  continued  its  influence  to  the 
dawn  of  the  20th  century.  See  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  369.  Compare  the 
case  here  with  that  mentioned  by  Quintilian. 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  231 

toned  by  the  ideals  of  the  more  advanced  institution.  As  time 
went  on  relations  grew,  if  anything,  more  exacting.  At  any 
rate  they  were  felt  more  keenly,  even  to  the  point  of  restive- 
ness,  till  the  situation  came  to  seem  so  unnatural  that  a  con- 
flict for  emancipation  was  inevitable. 

Scholarship. —  But  there  is  one  other  thing  that  perhaps  char- 
acterized the  period  better  than  anything  else,  because  it  went 
deeper  and  extended  farther.  The  period  developed  for  mod- 
ern times  the  idea  of  scholarship.  However  crude  it  may 
appear,  a  genuine  idea  of  scholarship  began  to  show  itself. 
The  world  sadly  needed  the  ideal.53 


APPENDIX  I 

1.  A  time  of  genuine  classical  enthusiasm. —  Rashdall's  statement 
here  is  significant, — "for  about  half  a  century  (twelfth  century), 
classical  Latin  was  taught,  not  merely  to  young  boys  but  to  advanced 
students,  in  at  least  one  school  of  Mediaeval  France,  as  later  it  was 
taught  in  universities  of  the  Reformation  and  the  Jesuit  colleges. 
Latin  was  taught  in  a  thorough  classical  way.  Lectures  covered  pretty 
much  the  whole  field  of  classical  Latin."  The  method  was  as  follows : 
—  1.  Questions  on  parsing,  scansion,  construction,  grammatical  figures, 
and  oratorical  tropes,  illustrated  in  the  passage  read ;  2,  varieties  of 
phraseology  noticed ;  different  ways  in  which  this  or  that  thought  was 
expressed  were  pointed  out;  the  whole  diction  was  subjected  to  elaborate 
and  exhaustive  analysis;  3,  comments  on  subject  matter,  enlarging  on 
allusions  to  physical  and  ethical  points ;  4,  the  next  morning  pupils  were 
required  under  severe  penalties  to  repeat  what  was  learned  the  day 
before;  5,  daily  practice  in  Latin  composition,  prose  and  verse,  in  imi- 
tation of  special  classical  models ;  6,  frequent  conversations  or  discus- 
sions on  given  subjects  with  a  view  to  acquiring  fluency  and  elegance 
of  diction.  This  description  represents  the  idea  of  John  of  Salisbury. 
In  his  Metalogicus  he  tries  to  vindicate  the  claims  of  grammar  and 
philology.  He  recognizes  the  bareness  of  logical  training  for  minds  ig- 
norant of  everything  else. 

But  scholasticism  "would  none"  of  this  revived  classicism;  it  was 
crowded  out  relentlessly.     See  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  63  f. 

2.  Bernard  of  dartres'  school  taught  grammar  or  rhetoric  less 
mechanically.  Attention  was  given  to  correct  Latinity.  Cicero  and 
Quintilian  were  studied  as  models,  and  there  was  a  wide  acquaintance 
with  Roman  literature. 

3.  Construing,  parsing,  discussing. —  In  the  grammar  school  the 

53  "  The  great  work  of  the  university  was  the  consecration  of  learn- 
ing."    Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  II,  692-3,  707. 


232  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

rudiments  of  a  classical  education  were  taught  in  much  the  same  way 
as  at  present,  says  Rashdall,  II.  603.  Donatus  and  Alexander  de  Villa 
Dei  were  the  grammars.  After  the  Psalms  were  learned  they  took 
up  Cato,  then  Ovid  and  Vergil.  In  the  absence  of  dictionaries  the 
master  construed  to  pupils  and  then  required  them  to  construe.  In 
England  books  were  construed  into  French  as  well  as  into  English, 
There  were  questions  on  parsing,  disputations  in  grammar,  examinations 
in  prose  and  verse.  All  this  stopped  when  the  students  entered  the 
university.  No  more  classical  books  were  construed.  Little  was  heard 
of  compositions.  There  were  now  lectures  on  grammar  and  similar 
subjects. 

We  must  not,  however,  be  misled,  by  these  limited  citations,  into 
thinking  that  the  movement  as  a  whole  was  limited.  Neither  must  we 
persuade  ourselves  that  these  and  similar  references  represented  the 
typical  method. 

The  typical  method  for  the  university  seems  to  have  been  a  bare 
and  formal  one  still,  with  the  interest  of  real  things  and  substance  less 
in  evidence  than  before.  1.  Standard  grammars  were  dictated,  ex- 
plained, memorized.  Donatus,  Priscian,  and  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei 
were  the  favorite  grammars,— the  two  latter  in  verse.  Vergil,  Cicero, 
etc.,  were  read,  but  to  illustrate  grammar.  2.  There  was  discussion 
(syllogistic)  on  grammatical  points.  With  the  exception  of  2  the 
method  was  perhaps  very  similar  to  that  of  the  previous  period:  — 
a  barren  method.  Logic  and  rhetoric  were  studied  from  epitomes. 
Rhetoric  was  regarded  as  a  collection  of  formal  rules  rather  than  a 
source  of  literary  training  and  a  concrete  subject.  Latin  was  still  used 
for  communication. 

4.  Method  in  the  university.—  It  is  interesting  to  note  more  in  de- 
tail the  method  inside  the  university,  which  in  part,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, was  merely  a  secondary  school.  (A)  Minute  analysis  of  a  book 
down  to  the  initial  sentence  or  thought;  paraphrasing  of  the  sentence 
for  better  presentation  of  the  meaning;  comments  and  explanations; 
students  took  copious  notes,  copied,  recopied,  revised,  "got  up."  (B) 
Author's  thought,  where  practicable,  cast  in  the  form  in  which  it  might 
serve  as  subject  matter  for  the  all-prevailing  logic  of  the  day;  ques- 
tions formulated  and  argued  pro  and  con;  work  in  this  connection 
often^ probably,  catechetical  in  form;  master  then  suggested  his  inter- 
pretation and  defended  syllogistically.  Another  account  of  method  (in 
advanced  work)  makes  dictation,  discussion,  reproduction  character- 
istic features. 

5.  Method  regulated  by  statute.— It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
sometimes  they  attempted  to  regulate  method  by  statute.  Boys  in 
"arts"  were  required  to  sit  on  the  ground  instead  of  on  benches, 
which  had  apparently  come  into  vogue.  Other  statutes  required  masters 
to  lecture  extempore  instead  of  reading  or  dictating.  They  even  pre- 
scribed the  exact  flow  of  words— "to  speak  as  rapidly  as  though  no 
one  were  writing  before  them."—  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  I ;  438. 


THE  EARLY  UNIVERSITY  PERIOD  233 

6.  An  estimate  of  university  training. —  Milton,  Tractate,  1644. 
Quoted  by  Laurie,  Hist,  of  Edue.  Opinion,  172-3 :  — 

"  I  deem  it  to  be  an  old  error  of  universities  not  yet  well  recovered 
from  the  scholastick  grossness  of  barbarous  ages,  that  instead  of  be- 
ginning with  arts  most  easie  and  that  be  such  as  are  most  obvious 
to  the  sense,  they  present  their  young  unmatriculated  novices,  at  first 
coming,  with  the  most  intellective  abstractions  of  logick  and  Metaphys- 
icks;  so  that  they,  having  but  newly  left  those  grammatick  flats  and  shal- 
lows where  they  stuck  unreasonably  to  learn  a  few  words  with  lamenta- 
ble construction,  and  now  on  the  sudden  transported  under  another 
climate  to  be  tossed  and  turmoiled  with  their  unballasted  wits  in 
fadomless  and  unquiet  deeps  of  controversie,  do  for  the  most  part  grow 
into  hatred  and  contempt  of  learning,  mocked  and  deluded  all  this  while 
with  ragged  notions  and  babblements,  while  they  expected  worthy  and 
delightful  knowledge." 

In  the  rhetorical  presentation  of  general  impressions  by  such  men 
as  Milton  and  Luther  there  is  no  place  for  the  exceptional  that  of 
course  existed.    But  we  are  after  the  average,  not  the  exceptional. 

7.  Results  in  higher  reaches  of  learning. —  In  the  higher  reaches 
of  knowledge  the  result  was  the  formulation  and  crystallization  of  past 
acquisitions  handed  on  by  the  early  Christian  centuries  and  the  early 
mediaeval  years.  Hence  came,  on  the  one  hand,  the  development  of 
dogma  that  culminated  in  the  science  of  theology,  and,  on  the  other,  the 
growth  of  the  sciences  of  medicine  and  mathematics,  of  geography  and 
physics.54  The  typical  method  was  that  of  syllogistic  reasoning,  de- 
rived from  the  rediscovered  Aristotle, —  a  restored  dialectic.  Aristotle 
thus  became  Christianized,  or  rather  theologized.  This  was  scholasti- 
cism, but  it  applied  more  to  the  advanced  work  of  the  university  than  to 
the  secondary  departments.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  scholasticism 
was  older  than  the  university. 


APPENDIX  II 

CHANGES    IN    AIMS   AND   IDEALS    WITHIN    THE   UNIVERSITY    PERIOD 

In  the  twelfth  century,  before  the  University  had  worked  out  its 
typical  forms,  grammar  was  the  center  and  almost  the  substance  of  the 
University  curriculum,  and  grammar  students  and  grammar  teachers 
were  most  conspicuous  for  some  time.  The  University  at  this  time 
abounded  in  "  grammar  schools."  Amid  comparative  quiet  in  the  po- 
litical  world  grammar,   which  stood   for  learning,  revived  and  had  a 

54  See  passages  in  Chapter  XIII  and  the  early  part  of  Chapter  XIV, 
dealing  with  enterprising  work  in  science,  etc.,  particularly  in  Spain. 
For  an  example  of  differentiated  geography  see  Georgii  Fovnier  e 
Societate  Jesu  Gegraphica  Orbis  Notitia  per  Litora  Maris  et  Ripas 
Fluuiorum.  Parisiis  MDCXLIX.  This  book  was  published  somewhat 
later  than  the  period  under  review,  but  it  shows  how  matters  had  been 
tending. 


234  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

real  classical  treatment.  By  the  term  grammar  we  are  of  course  to 
understand  grammar  in  its  ancient  comprehensive  sense.  It  was  a 
classical  revival  of  genuine  spirit  and  enterprise.  The  Roman  poets 
and  orators  flourished  in  the  schools.  Grammar  therefore  assumed 
its  old-time  place  as  a  regular,  not  an  exceptional,  occurrence.  See 
Appendix  I :  i,  2,  and  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  I,  63-64. 

Just  then,  however,  the  new  treasure,  logic,  came  to  light,  or  rather 
to  new  light.  "Grammar"  was  dethroned  and  the  new  subject  was 
set  up  in  its  place  and  received  the  incidence  of  attention  in  the  schools. 
As  mentioned  in  the  text  the  classics  were  neglected  and  grammar  be- 
came a  primary  task.  (Rashdall  I,  68.)  Latin  was  regarded  as  an 
expression  of  thought,  rather  than  an  instrument  of  discipline   (Clark, 

58). 

But  an  idea  unchanged  becomes  monotonous.  Methods  and  ideals 
so  pronounced,  so  specific,  and  so  formal,  as  was  the  case  in  "  scholasti- 
cism," became  outworn  as  exclusive  educational  forces.  Men's  minds 
reached  out  for  new  objects  of  study  and  effort.  It  should  also  be  said 
that  the  gains  of  the  passing  epoch  prepared  students  to  push  out 
more  profitably  into  the  new.  The  early  university  type  gave  way 
before  a  revolutionary  movement.  The  new  movement,  however,  rep- 
resented a  revival  and  transformation  of  an  old  phase  of  education, 
rather  than  the  creation  of  a  new  one.  In  the  absence  of  contemporary 
culture-material  men  turned  to  that  of  the  past.  For  a  time,  however, 
the  movement  did  in  spirit  represent  a  new  ideal.  So  the  University 
epoch  shades  into  the  Renaissance.  Here  is  some  evidence  of  the 
awakening:  — 

In  the  fourteenth  century  there  was  almost  universal  ignorance  of 
grammar,  and  Richard  de  Bury  began  to  make  books  (Mullinger,  op.  cit., 
205-6).  Soon  Oxford  and  Cambridge  established  schools  for  the  spe- 
cial purpose  of  developing  giammar  teaching,  and  more  modern  text- 
books followed  (Hazlitt,  op.  cit.,  14,  84).  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  11:514, 
570-1,  is  interesting  in  this  connection.  In  all  this  history  Italy  must 
be  excepted ;  the  traditions  stimulated  more  genuine  culture  there  and 
gave  a  more  generous  place  to  mathematics  and  science,  Nohle,  op.  cit., 
14-21 ;  Mullinger,  op.  cit.,  345 ;  Rashdall,  op.  cit.,  1 :  249. 


XIV 

FOUNDATIONS  OF   A   NEW   SECONDARY   SCHOOL 

Results  of  practical  needs  and  practical  politics  in  the 
"  University  Period." —  Influences  at  work  in  the  "  Univer- 
sity Period  "  led  to  notable  developments  in  other  directions. 
Side  by  side  with  the  Universities,  and  almost  coincident  with 
them,  there  was  developed  another  educational  institution.  It 
grew  out  of  the  same  educational  conditions  which  produced 
the  University,1  but  it  was  the  result  of  a  very  different  combi- 
nation of  forces  and  influences  and  represented  different  ends 
and  purposes.  It  was  a  response  to  the  practical  demands  of 
the  times.  Practical  needs  of  life,  and  particularly  practical 
politics,  produced  it.  As  life  and  life's  outlook  2  broadened 
under  the  conditions  previously  discussed,  and  as  trade  and 
cities  grew,  men  felt  the  need  of  a  school  nearer  to  and  more 
dependent  on  the  center  of  life.  A  study  of  ancient  forms 
also  must  give  way  to,  or  be  supplemented  by,  studies  that 
would  give  practical  preparation  for  the  commercial  and  indus- 
trial life  of  the  day.  Ecclesiastical  education  must  be  sup- 
plemented by  secular  education.  The  disadvantage  of  distant 
schools  conducted  by  monasteries,  often  remote  from  sections 
of  the  growing  cities,  must  be  remedied  by  the  establishment 
of  local  schools  nearer  the  pupils'  homes.3  Cities,  which  had 
originally  made  a  close  circle  around  the  monasteries  as  centers 
had  probably  spread  at  will  as  other  than  religious  influences 
drew  them,  as  trade  in  other  directions  occupied  them,  and  as 
the  protection  of  the  monasteries,  which  were  fortresses  as 
well  as  shrines,  was  no  longer  needed.     Again,  foreign  school 

1  See  early  pages  of  Chapter  XIII  and  particularly  those  dealing  with 
the  growth  of  cities. 

^  See  Chap.  XIII.     Conf.  Chap.  XV. 

3  Nohle,  in  Report  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Educ,  1897-8,  1 :  21  ff. 

235 


236  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

authorities  hardly  in  sympathy  with  the  new  city  demands 
must  be  replaced  by  authority  vested  in  the  city  itself.4 

Independence  in  school  management  inevitable. —  The 
feeling  of  independence  developed  in  city  life  was  sure  to  carry 
with  it  independence  in  school  management.  The  city  itself 
must  be  its  own  school  authority;  only  by  such  an  arrange- 
ment could  the  feeling  of  dignity  be  kept  intact,  and  strong  and 
vigorous.  Above  all,  the  city  needed  some  means  of  estab- 
lishing and  perpetuating  a  civic  ideal  on  which  its  well-being 
depended. 

A  city  school. —  Owing  to  all  these  influences,  owing  per- 
haps particularly  to  the  last,  came  the  "  City  School,"  which 
appeared  about  1250  A.  D.  It  is  evident  that  it  represented 
a  very  different  motive  from  that  which  called  forth  the  spe- 
cialized and  specializing  university.5 

A  difference  in  name  rather  than  in  fact,  at  first. —  The 
movement  for  city  schools  was  not,  however,  a  simple  one. 
At  first  the  main  thought  seems  to  have  been  on  the  name, 
rather  than  on  the  curriculum.  It  naturally  used  the  only 
model  it  had, —  the  monastic  or  cathedral  school,  from  which 
it  differed  little,  if  "at  all,  in  general  outline.6  It  adopted  the 
only  style  of  educational  clothes  it  knew.  It  formed  in  time, 
however,  a  center  for  national  culture,  as  contrasted  with 
ancient  or  foreign  culture,  and  it  paved  the  way  for  the  state 
school.7  Because  at  first  it  was  a  copy,  and  a  copy  of  a  school 
already  studied,  we  need  not  stay  to  speak  at  length  of  it 
here. 

Schools  of  private  associations.  The  vernacular.  The 
new  arithmetic  and  algebra. —  Soon  a  parallel  movement 
started  that  gave  expression  to  the  more  practical  side  of  life, 
and  brought  in  practical  subjects  like  the  vernacular  and  com- 

4  The  "  scholasticus "  had  gained  supreme  power  in  education,  and, 
as  school  income  from  fees  was  an  appreciable  item  in  finances,  he  was 
jealous  of  his  position.  Some  petty  school  contests  resulted  from  at- 
tempts of  plain  citizens  to  push  their  educational  plans,  but  the  vigorous 
action  of  the  cities,  which  were  young  and  virile,  regularly  won  the 
point,  or  at  least  secured  a  compromise.     Nohle,  op.  cit.,  21-22. 

5Ziegler,  op.  cit.,  33-38;  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  18-22;  Paulsen,  German 
Ed iic,  28  f. 

6  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  23. 

7  Beginning  in  the  16th  century. 


A  NEW  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  237 

mercial  arithmetic.8  The  latter  subject  was  advanced  in  im- 
portance by  special  schools  of  arithmetic  9  fostered  and  main- 
tained by  private  commercial  associations.  The  new  arith- 
metic, however,  made  way  slowly.  The  old  Greek  and  Roman 
method,  with  its  cumbrous  notation  and  objective  reckoning 
by  hand  counters  or  abacus,  died  slowly.  The  new  arithmetic 
was  characterized  by  the  Hindoo  (or  Arabic)  notation,  ease 
of  computation  and  representation,  and  consequent  rapidity  of 
action.10  The  party  that  advocated  the  new-old  Hindoo  nota- 
tion and  "  written  arithmetic,"  with  its  short  graphic  processes, 
in  place  of  the  old  and  bungling  concrete  or  objective  arith- 
metic, was  opposed  by  the  party  that  clung  to  the  hallowed 
symbols  of  the  past,  so  fully  incorporated  in  church  thought, 
church  decoration,  and  church  forms.  The  monasteries  were 
the  last  to  give  in.11  It  may  be  said  also  that  Algebra  was 
rising,  or  that  the  foundations  for  it  were  being  laid,  as  was 
natural  after  the  advent  of  the  new  symbolic  arithmetic.  The 
great  text-books  of  Ben  Ezra  and  Leonardo  were  soon  to  come. 
Again,  there  were  general  guild  schools  supplied  by  mediaeval 
guilds,  apart  from  regular  city  schools.  They  may  have 
emphasized  industrial  subjects,  at  least  at  a  little  later  period. 
But  for  a  time  their  curriculum  was  probably  the  same,  or 
much  the  same,  as  that  of  the  common  church  school.  That 
the  practical  idea  must  have  grown  slowly  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  even  a  guild  had  its  religious  forms  and  employed  priests 
to  say  masses  for  its  benefit.  It  was  through  these  priests 
that  the  school  was  originally  carried  on.  The  growth  of  such 
schools  is  exemplified  by  the  Merchant  Tailors'  School,  which 
still  exists  and  now  squares  its  curriculum  with  modern 
requirements.12 

8  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  24.  Great  apprehension  was  aroused  by  these  in- 
truders.  Men  felt  that  schools  were  going  wrong  by  thus  departing 
from  traditions.     See  Green,  Town  Life  in  Fifteenth  Century,  II :  12  ff. 

9  Fink,  Brief  History  of  Mathematics. 

10  Presses  now  became  busy  with  primary  books  on  "  Algorism." 

11  The  new  arithmetic  undoubtedly  simplified  work,  but,  in  the  absence 
of  practical  pedagogy,  it  tended  to  make  arithmetic  abstract.  The  val- 
uable element  in  the  old  arithmetic,  its  concreteness,  was  so  far  lost  that 
it  took  the  drastic  reforms  of  Pestalozzi  and  others  to  make  it  concrete 
and  adapt  the  subject  to  children's  need. 

12  See  also  Ziegler,  op.  cit.,  33  ff.  Conf .  Leach,  Eng.  Schools  at  the 
Reformation. 


238  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Three  schools,  all  illustrating  the  new  spirit. —  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  new  times  thus  present  a  double  or  triple  move- 
ment: i.  The  City  Latin  School  modeled  on  the  existing 
secondary  school,  but  destined  to  grow  very  slowly  out  of  that 
model,  to  modify  its  curriculum,  reluctantly,  but  surely,  and 
finally  to  emerge  as  the  gymnasium.  2.  The  Vernacular 
School,  at  this  time  an  elementary  school,  but  in  time  to  send 
out  a  secondary  branch  with  modern  languages  and  modern 
science  as  the  basis  of  its  curriculum.  3.  The  Guild  School, 
a  representative  of  private  education.13  The  first,  as  already 
indicated,  dates  from  1250  A.  D.  It  spread  so  rapidly  that  in 
Germany  at  the  end  of  the  mediaeval  period  there  was  hardly 
an  important  town  that  had  not  established  such  a  school 
through  its  City  Council.  The  second  dates  from  1350,  the 
third  perhaps  from  1150. 

Studies  and  methods. —  A  summary  of  the  secondary14  cur- 
riculum for  the  schools  we  are  dealing  with  15  would  show  that, 
aside  from  the  two  points  noted  above,  there  was  practically  no 
change  from  the  general  forms  of  the  time,  which  have  been 
given  in  detail  in  previous  chapters.16  Latin  was  the  great 
preparatory  subject,  and  logic  gave  flavor  to  the  whole.  The 
trivium,  with  the  emphasis  on  the  third  member,  formed  the 
typical  secondary  curriculum.  Methods  were  the  characteristic 
ones  noted  before.  Hence,  aside  from  a  possible  touch  of  the 
practical  in  these  city  schools,  the  aim  showed  no  divergence 
from  those  with  which  we  are  already  familiar.17  Still,  if  we 
go  beneath  the  surface  we  can  feel  the  movement  towards  cul- 
ture for  secular  positions  and  secular  life,  in  addition  to  that 
for  ecclesiastical  functions.18 

Real  significance  of  the  new  school. —  The  immediate  cur- 
riculum and  method,  which  show  so  little  divergence  from  the 
old,  therefore,  are  not  the  significant  features  in  the  case.     We 

13  Leach,  op.  cit.,  34  ff. ;  Nohle,  op.  c'xt.,  21  ff. 

14  The  new  commercial  and  practical  ideals  showed  themselves  more 
distinctly  in  the  elementary  schools. 

15  The  early  university  period  extending  to  the  Renaissance. 

16  The  real  innovations  in  the  curriculum  were  probably  most  con- 
spicuous in  primary  schools. 

"  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  19  f.,  23-25 ;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  95  f . 
18  Ziegler,  op.  cit.,  33  ff. 


A  NEW  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  239 

must  look  rather  at  the  source  of  the  movement  and  at  the  new 
authority  in  education,  and  we  must  note  that  a  new  direction 
was  given  to  education  and  a  new  ideal  introduced.  The  sig- 
nificant feature  therefore  is  that  other  interests,  besides  the 
ecclesiastical,  felt  the  need  of  education,  because  of  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  natural  education  of  imitation  and  apprentice- 
ship. Communities  became  too  large  and  too  specialized  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  old  order.  Accumulations  of  knowledge,  new 
and  old,  must  be  made  accessible  to  a  wider  school  public. 
Schools  were  therefore  to  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  more  than 
one  profession  and  occupation.  This  principle  once  started 
must  in  time  materially  change  ideas  as  to  appropriate  school 
subjects  and  methods,  and  it  did,  as  will  appear  in  a  later 
chapter. 

For  the  first  time  since  Roman  times  we  have  a  school  organi- 
zation that  supplies  the  surest  principles  of  growth.  Hence- 
forth secondary  education  is  to  come  more  out  of  the  life  of  the 
people.  These  schools  from  their  freer  and  more  sensitive 
position  and  relations  were  thus  the  main  hope  for  such  respon- 
sive changes  in  school  practices  and  policies  as  the  times  might 
require. 


XV 

SECONDARY   EDUCATION   OF  THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE 

Rising  and  falling  waves  of  imagination. —  The  Greek  and 
Roman  periods  afforded  favorable  conditions  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  imagination  in  various  forms ;  for  imagination  has 
as  many  forms  as  life  has  interests.  The  succeeding  centuries 
confined  thought  and  imagination  within  very  narrow  limits. 
Aside  from  a  very  limited  use  of  the  imagination  in  connection 
with  the  spread  of  Christianity  they  busied  themselves  with 
mastering  forms  and  words,  giving  prominence  to  memory 
work.  Imagination  in  these  centuries  recurred  to  the  primitive 
and  sensuous  type.1  The  early  university  age  was  absorbed 
with  sharpening  the  intellect,  sharpening  rather  than  cultivating 
it.  It  was  however  refashioning  and  whetting  a  tool  which 
would  accelerate  creative  work  in  following  ages. 

But  imagination  cannot  be  permanently  ignored.  The  next 
period  saw  it  bud  and  bloom  again  in  as  great  profusion  as  ever. 
There  was  a  freshness,  spontaneity,  and  even  exuberance  about 
it  that  have  always  won  admiration.  It  showed  its  broader 
functioning.  It  was  the  richer  for  the  new  power  that  inter- 
vening centuries  had  developed,  for  it  not  only  gives  to  every 
other  power,  it  takes  something  from  each,— which  is  only 
another  way  of  saying  that  it  is  a  form,  an  association,  rather 
than  an  independent  power.  This  new  epoch  is  not  merely 
interesting  psychologically,  it  is  especially  interesting  because 
of  the  important  place  it  occupied  in  establishing  secondary 
school  forms  and  policies. 

A  new  intellectual  awakening. —  The  scholastic  age,  as  we 
have  seen,  contributed  something  that  in  a  marked  way  distin- 
guished and  separated  the  age  from  those  that  preceded.  But 
the  new  interests  then  developed  became  outworn  in  the  course 

i  This  should  not  be  considered  a  disparagement.  It  was  a  natural 
step  in  the  evolution  of  a  new  ideal. 

240 


THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  241 

of  the  centuries  that  saw  the  early  universities  grow  into  power. 
The  mind  is  never  long  satisfied  with  old  forms  and  material. 
It  must  work  from  a  new  point  of  view  or  busy  itself  with  new 
creations.  Forceful  human  predispositions  and  endowments 
will  supply  their  own  conditions  of  development  and  will  find 
appropriate  outlets  or  fields  of  action.  The  last  part  of  the 
scholastic  age  quite  naturally  developed  a  restless  spirit  that 
longed  for  new  substance  on  which  to  use  the  new  tools  that  it 
had  prepared,  longed  for  new  aims  and  new  inspiration  beyond 
the  abstract  forms  of  logic.  It  found  them,  but  the  substance 
was  an  old  substance  revived,  and  the  inspiration  was  that  which 
came  surging  into  minds  from  the  wonderful  discovery  of 
ancient  treasures.  There  was  a  rebound  from  what  had  become 
flavorless  and  tedious,  and  the  rebound  made  a  new  epoch  in 
which  various  intellectual  processes,  and  among  them  imagina- 
tion, started  into  a  fresh  and  broader  life.  It  was  a  renais- 
sance of  both  intellect  and  spirit. 

The  Renaissance.  Only  an  episode  in  a  larger  renais- 
sance.—  This  Renaissance  of  the  centuries  beginning  somewhat 
earlier  than  1400  A.  D.  was  but  an  episode  of  a  larger  renais- 
sance beginning  much  earlier.  New  ideals  came  into  life  and 
education  in  the  early  Christian  centuries  and  needed  time  for 
rooting  before  the  new  and  the  old  could  fuse  and  nourish  one 
another  in  a  newer  and  stronger  civilization.  This  time  of 
preparation  was  so  poor  in  what  the  world  had  regarded  as 
culture  that  when  culture  re-emerged  in  a  more  settled  Chris- 
tian civilization  it  seemed  a  veritable  renaissance.  But  there 
were  several  flashes  of  brighter  intellectual  activity  on  the 
way, —  a  series  of  births  and  re-births.  That  of  the  fifteenth 
.  century  seems  the  brightest  and  most  persistent.  Yet  it  is 
probable  that  those  preceding  it  in  Spain,  in  France,  in  Italy, 
and  later  in  various  other  countries,  had  no  less  vital  influence. 
In  such  an  evolution  there  are  luminous  epochs,  but  no  culmina- 
tion. A  renaissance  is  rather  a  phase  or  phenomenon  than  a 
noumenon.  Charlemagne's  and  Alfred's  brief  work  and  the 
new  activity  coming  into  Europe  through  Saracenic  culture  and 
study  and  through  the  early  universities  were  thus  as  truly 
renaissances  as  the  one  we  have  now  reached. 

Many  forces  at  work. —  The  growth  in  insight  and  outlook, 


242  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

in  power  of  assimilation  and  appreciation,  may  sometimes  be 
very  gradual,  even  imperceptible ;  again  they  may  be  accelerated 
by  certain  fortunate  conditions,  either  individual  or  national, 
through  which  the  influence  of  opposing  and  obscuring  forces 
is  largely  annulled ;  they  may  be  facilitated  by  a  clearer  view  of 
ideals  and  more  practical  methods  of  realizing  them  that  come 
at  more  lucid  intervals  when  experiments  can  be  carried  on  by 
inspired  agents  not  hampered  by  tradition  nor  thwarted  or  de- 
flected by  conservative  forces ;  they  may  come  by  cataclysm. 
Such  fortunate  plannings,  discoveries,  applications,  and  even 
forcings  are  as  much  a  part  of  evolution  as  the  slower  processes 
of  nature.  They  are  a  part  of  nature.  All  renaissances  prob- 
ably present  these  several  types  of  movement.  Such  was  the 
nature  of  the  awakening  after  the  sleep  of  ancient  culture.  We 
simply  mark  the  latter  by  capitalizing  the  word.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  the  others  by  its  intensity  and  because  it  stands 
at  the  confluence  of  two  streams  of  science  and  culture,  one 
coming  down  from  the  Orient  and  Greece  through  the  Arabs 
in  Spain,  the  other  coming  more  directly  from  Greece  and 
Rome  through  Italy  and  the  Revival.2 

A  broad  movement. —  Ideally  and  typically  a  renaissance  has 
to  do  with  the  awakening  of  the  mind  generally,  with  new  in- 
sight into  life  in  all  directions.  We  have  perhaps  allowed  our 
minds  to  center  on  the  imaginative  features  of  the  new  age, 
and  more  expressly  on  the  esthetic  development  that  was  con- 
spicuous in  the  direction  of  literature  and  art.3  Indeed,  con- 
ditions were  ripe  for  the  development  of  a  keener  art  spirit 
than  had  been  manifest  for  many  centuries.  But  to  confine 
ourselves  to  this  phase  of  the  Renaissance  is  to  view  it  from 
only  one  angle.     It  was  much  larger  than  this. 

The  Renaissance  was  at  first  reasonably  true  to  the  broad 
type  that  has  been  referred  to,  encouraging  a  broadening  of 
thought  in  many  lines.     But  for  some  time,  after  the  first 

2  The  latter  represented  a  double  descent :  —  i.  Italians  became  more 
vigorously  conscious  of  the  culture  and  culture  material  that  had  re- 
mained in  their  midst,  originally  derived  in  part  from  Greek  influence, 
in  part,  however,  from  original  and  masterful  qualities  in  the  Romans 
themselves.  2.  The  dispersion  of  scholars,  on  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
brought  to  the  West  new  contributions  of  Greek  culture. 

3  There  was  marvellous  development  in  other  directions. 


THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  243 

enthusiasm  had  settled  into  more  formal  thought  and  mood,  it 
spent  its  force  in  studying  the  past  and  in  interpreting  and 
adapting  past  achievements.  It  therefore  gave  a  fresh  view  in 
a  single  direction  and  became  a  narrow  movement.  It  was  so 
almost  bv  accident.  Even  thus  it  prepared  the  way  for  a  richer 
movement  that  will  be  considered  in  later  chapters.4  It  will 
be  worth  while  to  note  the  causes  of  this  narrower  develop- 
ment and  to  study  its  results. 

Immediate  occasion  of  the  Renaissance. —  Conditions  and 
antecedents  of  the  Renaissance  were  those  circumstances  or 
forces  whose  influences  have  been  traced  in  the  awakenings  of 
the  university  movement  and  in  the  spread  of  city  schools.5 
The  immediate  occasion  was  the  Revival  of  Learning.  At 
different  periods,  and  in  limited  areas  or  circles,  men  had  caught 
views  of  the  culture  material  of  the  ancient  world,  particularly 
the  ancient  Roman  world.6  But  in  the  fifteenth  century  they 
began,  in  a  larger  and  more  vital  way,  to  study,  and  to  draw 
inspiration  from,  the  ancient  classics  of  both  classic  nations. 
Content  of  classic  literature  entranced  as  it  had  not,  except  in 
rare  instances,  since  Roman  days,  and  had  rarely  done  even 
then.  Spirit  ruled  and  form  retired  as  a  paramount  object  of 
effort  and  study.  The  new  movement  began  in  Italy  where 
the  old  masterpieces  had  remained  in  sight  and  where  every- 
thing suggested  the  old  days.  But  it  soon  spread.  Every- 
where the  lodestone  of  interest,  or  the  supreme  object  of 
effort,  especially  educational  effort,  was  the  old  classic  culture- 
material.  The  story  has  often  been  told,  how  the  new  interest 
spread  and  what  favor,  even  furor,  was  aroused  by  the  new 
studies.     It  need  only  be  suggested  here. 

The  central  interest. —  As  the  idea  of  culture,  in  contrast 
with  bare  church  service  and  the  practical  ideals  of  the  later 
university  period,  came  to  the  front  in  the  literary  products  of 
the  only  well  known  cultured  nations,  young  Europe  made  a 
supreme  effort  to  take  intellectual  possession  of  this  literature, 
now  designated  as  the  ancient  classics.7     Linguistic  study  thus 

*  See  Chapters  XVIII-XX. 
»  See  Chapters  XIII  and  XIV. 
6  See  Chap.  XIII  and  Appendix  6  of  that  chapter. 
7 "  The  study  of   language  became  the  common  bond  between  the 
literary  and  religious  promoters  of  the  Revival  in  the  15th  and  16th 


244  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

became  the  absorbing  occupation  of  scholars  and  would-be 
scholars,  and  eventually  monopolized  the  energies  of  the  schools. 

A  psychologic  phenomenon;  not  dependent  upon  Latin 
and  Greek. —  If  the  classics  had  been  completely  lost,  mental  ac- 
tivity would  have  occupied  itself  elsewhere  with  remarkable 
results,  and  would  have  achieved  genuine  culture.  The 
Renaissance  was,  par  excellence,  a  psychological  phenomenon, 
a  genuine  mind-awakening.  We  have  been  misled  by  taking 
certain  sequences,  conditions,  and  occasions  as  causes.  Pro- 
fessor Laurie  says,  with  a  good  deal  of  justice,  that  the 
Renaissance  was  not  dependent  upon  Latin  and  Greek  for  its 
origin  or  its  permanence,  and  he  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that, 
long  before  this,  Europe  had  begun  to  seek  original  expression 
for  its  own  view  of  human  life  in  the  indigenous  literary  prod- 
ucts of  Germanic  nations.8  Each  epoch,  however,  needs  to 
stand  on  the  shoulders  of  the  past  in  order  to  get  a  fairer  out- 
look and  make  the  best  headway.  Progress  would  be  waste- 
fully  slow  if  each  new  period  had  to  work  out  everything  from 
the  beginning  from  its  own  view-point.  The  form  and  con- 
tent of  Latin  and  Greek  literature  were  a  great  inheritance  and 
ought  to  have  led  more  quickly  to  a  new  creative  epoch.  But 
unfortunately  men  became  so  absorbed  in  the  old  that  they  for- 
got the  new.  The  assimilative  process  extended  beyond  all 
reasonable  limits. 

Two  contrasted  parts  of  the  Renaissance  period. —  The 
Renaissance  was  not  a  homogeneous  period.  It  had  two 
phases,  an  earlier  and  a  later,  strikingly  different  in  aim  and 

centuries.  A  barbarous  and  monkish  Latinity  was  the  vehicle  of  a  bar- 
barous and  monkish  conception  of  life.  We  cannot  separate  language 
and  thought.  Hence  the  identification  of  the  Humanistic  Revival, 
literary  and  esthetic,  with  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek, —  the  two  great 
vehicles  of  literature  and  art  common  to  the  European  world.  Hence 
too  the  identification  of  the  revival  of  a  pure  Christianity  with  the 
critical  study  of  the  same  languages  and  of  Hebrew."  Laurie, — 
Studies  in  the  History  of  Educational  Opinion  from  the  Renaissance, 

page  13.  >  ....„«       « 

8  The  Niebelungenhed  is  based  upon  primitive  ballads.  The  Song 
of  Roland,  The  Cid,  The  Kalevala,  and  other  epic  literature  of  Western 
Europe  rest  upon,  and  have  grown  out  of,  a  stratum  of  ballad  litera- 
ture. Tn  the  present  case  the  natural  literary  development  of  Europe 
early  became  obscured  by  the  borrowed  development  of  classic  nations, 
and  had  little  influence,  or,  at  any  rate,  only  a  late  influence. 


THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  245 

characteristics.  The  early  Renaissance  was  characterized  by 
the  spontaneity,  freshness,  and  enthusiasm  of  early  contact  with 
classic  culture.  The  mind  as  a  whole  was  stimulated ;  the  out- 
look was  a  broad  one;  many  interests  drew  attention,  so  that 
the  mind  went  out  actively  in  many  directions.  It  is  impor- 
tant here  to  notice  again  that  Latin  was  still  a  living  language. 
It  was  an  instrument  of  thought,  not  an  instrument  9  of  disci- 
pline. The  scholastic  epoch  had  given  it  new  power  and  made 
it  a  great  force  in  life,  as  already  noted,1*  but  it  had  narrowed 
its  use  to  a  single  interest.  The  Renaissance  brought  back  to 
Latin  its  many-sidedness,  as  interests  were  manifold  and  Latin 
was  the  natural  means  of  communication  for  all.  The  language 
was  thus  adapting  itself  to  new  thought  and  expression  in  many 
directions.  Goliardi  moulded  it  in  mediaeval  songs.11  Erasmus 
used  his  powerful  influence  to  make  Latin  the  language  of  the 
schools  and  give  it  a  development  consonant  with  the  times,  as 
seen  in  his  compositions  for  school  use.12  Latin  was  thus  an 
active,  vital  force.  Altogether  it  is  evident  that  the  period  was 
one  of  enthusiastic  outlook.  The  Renaissance  mind  had  not 
yet  turned  in  upon  itself. 

Typical  secondary  school  of  the  early  period.  Its  aim. — 
The  school  that  represents  this  phase  of  the  Renaissance  is  that 
of  Vittorino  da  Feltre.  His  curriculum  and  method  were  thor- 
oughly humanistic.  His  ideal  was  the  old  Greco-Roman  ideal 
transfused  by  Christian  thought, — 

"the  penetration  of  Christian  life  with  classical  culture."  As 
amplified  in  Woodward's  monograph  the  ideal  was  the  "  harmonious 
development  of  mind,  body,  and  character,  actualized  in  young 
men  who  were  to  serve  God  in  church  and  state  in  whatever  po- 
sition they  should  be  called  upon  to  occupy;"  and  the  author 
adds  (perhaps  with  some  exaggeration  that  a  general  statement 
couched  in  rhetorical  terms  is  liable  to  involve),  "scholars  per- 
suaded themselves  that  style  could  fulfil  the  function  of  religious 

9  Clark,  op.  cit.,  57. 

"  The  relation  of  Latin  to  the  needs  of  various  classes  explains  its 
prominence  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  Everywhere  men  actually 
needed  it, —  read,  wrote,  and  to  a  large  extent  spoke  and,  perhaps, 
thought  in  Latin." — Leach,  op.  cit.,  105. 

10  See  Chapter  XIII. 

11  Clark,  op.  cit.,  40,  41,  68. 

12  Clark,  op.  cit.,  82  ff.  Erasmus  in  a  way  marks  the  end  of  this  de- 
velopment of  Latin. 


246 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


instinct,  that  argument  and  illustration  drawn  from  an  authoritative 
past  and  driven  home  by  exhortation,  couched  in  classical  literary 
form,  could  serve  as  a  spiritual  force  to  the  individual  life." 

With  our  waning  regard  for  the  classics,  and  particularly 
with  our  broadening  ideas  of  education,  we  can  hardly  appre- 
ciate those  older  teachers'  estimates  of  the  study  of  the  classics 
as  an  instrument  for  developing  multifold  power  and  an  all- 
round  man. 

The  details  of  Da  Feltre's  school  are  very  interesting.  They 
show  how  far  the  educational  world  had  traveled  since  medise- 
valism  defined  its  school  forms.  A  summary  under  the  three 
usual  heads  will  serve  to  focus  thought  on  the  characteristic 
features  of  his  school  and  give  us  a  fair  idea  of  its  scope. 

Da  Feltre's  school :  — 


Ideal 


The  penetration  of  the  Christian  life  with  classical  culture, 
or  the  harmonious  development  of  mind,  body  and  character. 
The  aim  was  to  send  forth  young  men  who  should  serve  God 
in  church  and  state  in  whatever  position  they  should  be  called 
upon  to  occupy.13 


Curriculum :  — 

Latin, —  the  central  lan- 
guage; medium  of  in- 
struction. 

Greek, —  taken  up  early. 

Composition,  —  systematic 
graded  course. 


Language  and  literature  the  core 
of  the  curriculum.  The  chief 
factors  in  education.  All  else 
subordinate  or  ancillary. 


Arithmetic. 

Geometry,  with  elements  of 

Algebra. 
Astronomy. 


Valued  by  Da  Feltre  as  the  only 
exact  knowledge  we  possess, 
and  as  the  finest  possible  stim- 
ulus to  exact  thought.  Ge- 
ometry probably  the  favorite, 
and  of  course  taught  through 
Euclid;  but  general  principles 
were  regarded  as  all  that  was 
essential.  "  Too  much  devo- 
tion to  the  abstract  side  "  was 
thought  "  a  form  of  trifling." 
Algebra  barely  alluded  to. 

Natural  philosophy  (probably  including  geography).     A  kind 
of  key  to  nature  allusions  found  in  literature. 

13  See  Woodward. 


THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  247 

Natural  History. —  Perhaps  the  "  Bestiary  "  would  well  define 
the  idea  here.  Men  were  interested  in  accounts  of  strange 
animals  and  plants,  and  color  beauties  in  stones.  The 
substance  of  natural  history  was  probably  a  collection  of 
interesting  and  marvellous  items  about  natural  objects. 
These  subjects  were  regarded  as  an  aid  to  vocabulary- 
building. 

History. —  For  ethical  values  and  for  insight  into  customs 
and  national  virtues. 

Philosophy, —  chiefly  ethics,  particularly  Stoic  ethics. 

•Logic  or  dialectic. 

Morals. 

Religious  instruction. —  The  whole  course  of  training  in  a  re- 
ligious setting.  "  The  dignity  of  human  lips  is  based  on 
their  relation  to  the  Divine." 

Physical  training, —  both  for  hygiene  and  for  culture.  The 
Greek  ideal  of  the  harmonious  development  of  mind  and 
body  added  to  the  Roman  practical  ideal  of  a  sound  mind 
in  a  sound  body. 

Music, —  admitted  sparingly.  Severer  melodies  favored.  Com- 
pare with  ideas  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  See  Chapter 
VI. 

General  Method :  — 

Books  few;  oral  work  predominated.  Text  dictated,  con- 
strued, translated.  Notes  given,  to  be  copied  by  the  pupil. 
Oral  questions.     Lectures. 

The  pupil  also  came  into  account.  'Da  Feltre  studied  the 
taste  and  capacity  of  each  pupil,  took  note  of  his  proposed 
career,  and  adapted  his  method  accordingly,  while  ample 
variation  in  subjects  gave  him  the  means  of  keeping  up  the 
interest. 

Special  method  in  language :  — 

Grammar  not  yet  "  crystallized  into  authoritative  rule  and 
usage,  but  still  largely  a  matter  of  induction."  A  small  manual 
of  accidence  in  question  and  answer  form  might  be  used,  but 
otherwise  grammatical  usage  was  gathered  from  a  study  of  the 
authors.  A  many-sided  knowledge  must  be  secured  before 
the  regular  reading  of  the  authors  for  themselves  began :  — 
r.  A  vocabulary  by  dictation,  with  the  chief  inflections.  2. 
Easy  passages  from  the  poets  explained,  probably  translated, 
and  used  for  exercises  in  accidence.  3.  A  similar  course  in 
historical  narrative  and  moral  anecdote,  with  stress  on  subject 
matter,  in  connection  with  elementary  composition  and  dis- 
putation. 4.  Accent,  quantity,  enunciation  were  essential 
features  of  every  lesson.    An  important  means  of  gaining 


248  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

language  and  language  style  was  constant  practice  in  composi- 
tion.14 

Grammar  was  fundamental,  though  not  the  formal  propae- 
deutic it  finally  became.  But  the  narrow  idea  of  grammar  as 
a  fundamental  subject  introductory  to  literature  was  growing, 
(and  even  here  was  being  laid  the  foundation  of  the  idea  that 
"grammar  is  the  essential  instrument  of  teaching,  and  that 
its  study  lies  at  the  root  of  all  intellectual  progress."  15 

The  edifice  of  letters  was  built  on  this  grammatical  founda- 
tion. Here  comes  in  Quintilian's  idea  of  the  "  explication  "  of 
literature,  including  meaning  and  construction  of  words,  and 
a  study  of  style  and  allusions.  Parallel  teaching  of  Latin 
and  Greek  was  practiced. 

Special  method  in  physical  training:  — 

Formal  gymnastic  exercise,  and  the  spontaneous  exercise  of 
games. 

Special  method  in  morals :  — 

Morals  not  a  formal  study  in  the  course,  but  enforced 
by  correlation  and  environment.  Corporal  punishment  not  a 
factor  of  method  here.  Aside  from  the  ethical  influence  of 
the  curriculum,  character  was  formed  by  sustained  personal 
influence  and  supervision.  An  active,  healthy,  happy  school, 
with  clearly  defined  ethical  character  was  the  ideal,  thus 
furnishing  the  best  conditions  for  character  building. 

It  is  evident  from  this  summary  that  Latin  was  becoming 
fixed  in  the  curriculum,  and  that  grammar  was  assuming  its 
special  role  as  a  fundamental  in  the  course. 

We  must  not  be  misled  by  terms  here,  and  think  that 
Da  Feltre's  school  was  more  advanced  than  it  really  was.  The 
work  in  what  we  now  call  advanced  subjects  was  probably  very 
elementary.  Secondary  and  higher  sections  of  the  school  were 
doubtless  as  indefinite  as  in  Quintilian's  time,  but  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  the  basal  elements  of  this  outline  represent  a  true  sec- 
ondary school  and  that  the  pupils  in  substantial  numbers  were 
secondary  pupils.  We  should  remember  again,  however,  that 
the  school  was  of  the  European  type,  which  takes  boys  earlier 
and  keeps  them  later  than  American  secondary  schools. 

Other  typical  spirits  of  the  early  Renaissance. —  This 
school  was  an  expression  of  the  early  Renaissance  spirit. 
Da  Feltre  was  not  alone,  though  he  perhaps  represented  the 

14  Conf.  Quintilian.  16  See  Woodward. 


THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  249 

period  in  its  purest  form.  JEneas  Sylvius,  Guarino,  and  others 
belonged  to  the  same  type  of  educators,16 — those  who  were 
reinstating  secondary  education.  This  enterprising  educational 
work  is  a  striking  indication  of  the  fact  that  the  ideal  and  social 
status  of  the  teacher  were  rising,17  and  that  education  in  all 
its  branches  was  taking  on  new  life  and  getting  a  clearer  view 
of  its  larger  functions. 

Prototypes  of  this  school,  with  comparisons. —  It  can 
hardly  escape  notice  that  the  first  conspicuous  schools  of  the 
Revival  were  copies  of  the  best  schools  of  old  Rome,  though 
permeated  by  Christian  ideals.  Such  was  Da  Feltre's  school. 
It  is  evident  that  we  have  in  its  spirit  a  stronger  hint  of  Greek 
thought  and  aim  than  we  find  in  Quintilian,  but  there  is  evident 
similarity  between  the  two  educators.  There  is  similarity  not 
merely  in  detail  of  plan  and  method,  but  in  the  general  aim. 
Quintilian's  ideal  was  a  civic  one.  Da  Feltre's  was  also  civic, 
only  of  a  broader  type,  as  the  times  demanded.  This  early 
humanistic  education  was  a  preparation  for  Christian  citizen- 
ship. Each  teacher  therefore  was  responsive  to  his  times,  as 
any  true  educator  must  be  to  do  his  work  in  an  adequate  man- 
ner. Da  Feltre  had  grown  as  his  times  had  grown.  He  lived 
in  the  present  as  well  as  in  the  past. 

Such  was  the  nature  of  the  first  period  of  the  Renaissance, 
and  such  was  the  school  that  responded  to  its  spirit.     Spon- 

16  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  and  Ziegler,  op.  cit.,  45-48.  Ziegler  gives  ab- 
stracts of  Vergcrius'  "  Good  Morals  and  Liberal  Studies,"  Vegius'  "  On 
the  Training  and  Good  Morals  of  Children,"  Sylvius'  "Treatise  on  the 
Education  of  Children,"  Guarino's  "  The  manner  and  Order  of  Teaching 
and  Learning,"  most  or  all  of  which  show  a  more  interesting  and  a 
more  vital  pedogogy  than  ruled  at  the  time. 

17  Da  Feltre's  ideal  of  the  teacher  was  in  strong  contrast  with  the  ideal 
of  the  previous  period  indicated  by  the  following  citation :  — 

"Let  those  teach  who  like  disorder,  noise,  and  squalor,  who  rejoice 
in  the  screams  of  the  victim  as  the  rod  falls  gayly,  who  are  not  happy 
unless  they  can  terrify,  flog,  and  torture.  How  then  can  teaching,  be  it 
of  grammar  or  any  of  the  liberal  arts,  be  a  fit  occupation  for  honorable 
age?  Quit  so  debasing  a  trade  while  chance  offers.  Pueros  doceant 
qui  majora  non  possunt,  quibus  mens  tardior,  sanguis  gelidus,  animus 
lucelli  appetens  ncgligens   fastidii." 

The  language  may  be  overwrought,  but  after  all  it  shows  the  estimate 
of  the  genus  teacher  by  the  earliest  humanists.  It  represents  the  past, 
however,  rather  than  the  future,  though  it  probably  does  not  come  far 
from  giving  a  fair  picture  of  average  school  conditions  as  late  as 
Luther's  boyhood,  and  even  much  later. 


250  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

taneity,  interest,  enthusiastic  cheerfulness,  and  a  belief  in  the 
influence  of  knowledge  on  life  and  character  were  character- 
istics of  revived  culture. 

Elyot's  school  in  England. —  Italy  was  not  alone  in  produc- 
ing educators  of  the  new  type.  About  the  time  Da  Feltre  was 
working  in  Italy,  England  had  an  exponent  of  the  lively 
Renaissance  spirit  in  Elyot,  who  has  given  us  his  school  plan 
in  a  book  called  the  Governour, —  a  reduced  Quintilian.  In 
his  curriculum  English  is  to  come  before  Latin,  except  as  Latin 
is  picked  up  by  a  natural  method  in  early  years  (before  7).  A 
few  "  quick  rules  of  grammar  "  are  followed  by  reading.  The 
language  is  advanced  by  colloquial  means.  By  fourteen  the 
boy  is  to  be  familiar  with  the  JEneid,  parts  of  Lucian,  Aris- 
tophanes, Homer,  Vergil,  Ovid,  and  Lucian.  After  this  come 
logic  (the  "Topics"),  rhetoric  (Quintilian)  and  the  orators, 
geography  with  maps,  and  history  (in  Livy,  C?esar,  Sallust,  and 
Xenophon).  After  seventeen  the  boy  is  to  take  up  the  first 
two  books  of  Aristotle's  Ethics,  Cicero's  De  Ofhciis,  and  Plato. 
His  idea  of  one  great  feature  of  method  is  tersely  put,  showing 
that  he  does  not  favor  a  burden  of  grammar  as  a  preliminary : 

"It  (grammar)  in  a  manner  mortyfyeth  his  courage,  and  by 
that  time  he  cometh  to  the  most  sweet  and  pleasant  reading  of 
old  authors  the  sparks  of  fervent  desire  of  learning  are  extinct 
with  the  burden  of  grammar."  His  idea  of  a  grammarian  is  well 
defined  negatively  in  these  words :  — "  I  call  not  them  grammar- 
ians (teachers)  which  only  can  teach  and  make  rules  whereby 
a  child  shall  only  learn  to  speak  congruous  Latin,  or  to  make  six 
verses  standing  on  one  foot,  wherein  perchance  shall  be  neither 
sentence  nor  eloquence." 

His  grammarian  is  the  broad  literary  man  of  Quintilian  who 
teaches  literature  by  what  Laurie  calls  the  best  method  ever 
produced,—  but  hardly  the  best  that  could  be  produced. 

Here,  then,  was  another  great  school  in  another  part  of  the 
world.  The  schools  which  we  get  a  glimpse  of  in  this  chap- 
ter, so  far  as  they  go,  are  immeasurably  superior  to  those  of  a 
much  later  day,  better  than  those  of  fifty  years  ago;  better, 
shall  we  say,  than  many  a  great  secondary  school  to-day. 

Progress  of  the  humanistic  secondary  school. —  Humanism 
gradually  spread  over  Europe.     But  as  a  rule  the  new  life 


THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE  251 

with  its  marked  characteristics  of  spontaneity  and  enthusiasm 
opened  later  in  the  North  than  in  the  South.  In  the  North 
it  depended  on  a  center  of  diffusion  far  away.  The  Renais- 
sance was  an  external  force  working  its  way  in  after  missionary 
principles.  In  Italy  it  was  an  inner  force  working  its  way  out. 
Again  the  North  was,  in  a  way,  a  non-cultural  land.  The 
marks  and  relics  of  culture  bequeathed  by  an  older  civilization 
did  not  show  themselves  in  profusion  and  richness  as  in  the 
South,  but  the  North  soon  felt  in  its  more  sluggish  way  what 
the  South  felt  at  the  outset.18 

18  There  were  characteristic  differences  in  the  progress  of  the  Re- 
naissance in  different  countries,  and  the  movement  was  of  course  not 
a  simultaneous  one  in  the  different  sections. 

England  was  perhaps  an  exception  to  the  slow  response.  From  early 
days  this  country  has  been  responsive  to  education  and  has  had  brilliant 
educational  periods. 


XVI 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN   THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE 

Later  Renaissance  compared  with  earlier. —  The  later 
Renaissance  presents  a  striking  contrast  with  the  earlier  epoch 
discussed  in  the  last  chapter,  at  least  as  far  as  concerns  the 
substance  of  secondary  instruction.  We  have  already  seen  that 
in  the  early  Renaissance  language  study  not  only  was  the  basal 
work  of  the  curriculum,  but  occupied  the  major  part  of  the 
time,  and  that  Latin  was  the  language  which  claimed  chief 
attention.  Latin  was  then  a  living  language  and  hence  per- 
formed two  functions  in  education.  Now,  however,  Latin 
was  passing  as  a  living  language.  It  had  long  lain  outside  the 
life  of  the  masses,  who  spoke  Teutonic  dialects  or  a  hybrid 
language  formed  of  Latin  and  Teutonic  elements  that  modi- 
fied one  another  and  then  fused.  The  status  of  the  masses  was 
gradually  rising,  impelled  by  the  forces  and  conditions  that  have 
been  described  in  recent  chapters.  The  vernaculars  were  thus 
assuming  power  and  influence.1  There  was  finally  no  need  of 
teaching  Latin  for  practical  purposes  at  all,  but  the  time  was 
not  yet. 

Language  is  first  of  all  a  practical  subject,  and  its  develop- 
ment has  depended  upon  practical  considerations.  At  the  out- 
set every-day  need  was  the  controlling  influence.  Then  a  cul- 
tural aim  suggested  itself  and  added  its  peculiar  force  to  the 
evolutionary  process.  The  latter  aim,  however,  is  just  as  prac- 
tical as  the  former,  for  it  issues  in  real  service,  increasing  both 
the  efficiency  and  scope  of  language.  The  one  aim  produces  a 
serviceable  medium  of  communication,  the  other  gives  form 
as  well  as  substance.     Then  came  a  pseudo-practical  idea  that 

?  \n  Germany,  for  instance,  its  condition  was  gradually  improved 
till,  in  the  outburst  of  the  early  German  classic  times,  guided  by  the  rare 
spirits  of  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  Schiller,  it  triumphed  for  literary  pur- 
poses also. 

252 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  253 

gave  to  language  study  the  aim  of  formal  discipline.  It 
afforded  small  welcome  and  smaller  opportunity  to  other  aims. 
Under  its  sway  Latin,  losing  the  inspiration  of  the  practical 
aims  referred  to,  "  became  copy."  From  this  time  almost  to 
the  present  the  idea  of  formal  discipline  has  been  paramount  on 
the  foreign  language  side  of  secondary  education,  and  it  still 
holds  a  large  place.  While  language  is  a  practical  subject,  the 
teaching  of  language  has  generally  come  far  short  of  being  a 
practical  matter.2 

Status  of  Latin  in  the  later  Renaissance  period. —  In  the 
later  Renaissance  period, —  the  sixteenth  century, —  Latin  was 
still  taught  for  certain  practical  purposes,  at  least  for  a  time. 
Though  it  could  no  longer  be  called  the  vernacular  for  the 
people  at  large,  it  was  still  the  language  par  excellence  of  the 
educated, —  their  medium  of  communication,  both  oral  and 
written.  Science,  art,  and  literature  still  owned  it  as  their  lan- 
guage.3 Vernaculars  were  still  too  far  from  a  culture  status 
to  be  considered  as  means  or  ends  of  educational  plans.  They 
were  for  the  masses  and  did  not  come  within  the  extended 
course  of  education  that  was  only  for  the  few  who  affiliated 
with  the  Latin  element.4 

The  Latin  language  thus  held  men's  gaze  and  efforts  at  this 
time  because  of  what  it  was  and  what  it  contained,  and  because 
of  its  still  existing  practical  relations.  To  be  in  the  cultured 
circle,  to  be  possessed  of  the  means  of  communication  between 
culture-centers,  and  to  appreciate  the  content  of  which  the  lan- 
guage was  the  vehicle,  one  must  possess  the  language.  It  was 
accordingly  easy  to  lay  supreme  stress  on  language  study  and 
in  effect  make  it  an  end. 

Latin  of  the  Golden  Age  now  the  aim. —  Under  these  cir- 

2  In  spite  of  much  splendid  work  on  the  disciplinary  side  of  language 
teaching  it  must  be  confessed  that  results  in  the  direction  of  language 
power  have  not  been  at  all  commensurate  with  the  energy  expended. 

3  Leach,  op.  cit.,  105,  says  that  everywhere  men  actually  needed  it, 
read  it,  wrote  it,  and  to  a  large  extent  spoke  and  perhaps  thought  in 
it,  as  indicated  in  a  previous  note. 

4  There  was  a  caste  in  language,  as  there  has  always  been.  Barriers 
shut  out  the  newer  and  more  practical.  There  have  always  been  gentiles 
or  barbarians  in  subjects  of  study  as  well  as  in  peoples.  The  missionary 
linguist  or  the  missionary  philologian  are  not  easily  developed.  Dialects 
destined  to  become  strong  cultural  forces  are  left  to  grow  lip  by 
themselves ;  a  part  of  evolutionary  machinery  is  withheld  from  them. 


254  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

cumstances,  when  Latin  was  no  longer  a  necessity  in  any  such 
sense  as  during  the  period  covered  in  the  last  chapter,  it  is  not 
a  long  reach  to  a  modification  of  the  aim  just  noted  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  particular  phase  of  language  study.  There  thus  came 
an  absorbing  ambition  to  possess  the  language  of  the  golden 
age  of  Latin  development, —  in  fact  to  make  youth  like  the 
Romans  of  Roman  days. 

Formal  discipline. —  So  deep  an  impression  did  the  idea 
make  that,  amid  various  vicissitudes,  it  can  be  traced  as  far 
down  as  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Now  as  soon  as 
ends  are  narrowed  in  this  way,  and  the  acquisition  of  a  special 
type  of  language  becomes  paramount,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
formalize  language  teaching,  because  mechanical  and  formal 
methods  seem  the  easiest  way  of  mastering  old  forms.  "  What 
was  a  revelation  to  one  generation  becomes  an  unintelligible 
routine  to  the  next."  In  the  history  of  language  teaching  there 
will  be  found  to  be  a  regular  rhythm  between  the  culture 
idea  and  the  form  idea, —  the  latter  obscuring  the  former, 
because,  after  all,  the  acquisition  of  language  forms  must 
occupy  a  large  amount  of  attention.  "  Formal  discipline " 
becomes  an  easy  aim  when  language  teaching  occupies  the 
chief  place  in  a  curriculum  and  when  the  language  is  no 
longer  a  living  one.  Correlatively  formal  teaching  becomes  an 
easy  method.  It  is  a  commentary  on  the  laissez  faire  spirit  of 
the  secondary  school. 

Textual  movement. —  Added  to  this  natural  tendency  was 
the  influence  of  the  philological  and  textual  movement  that 
came  during  the  second  part  of  the  Renaissance  and  made  tech- 
nical language  and  grammar  study  prominent.  Scholars 
became  interested  in  studying  the  history  and  relationships  of 
languages  and  in  deciding  on  fine  points  in  text-criticism.  To 
do  this  one  must  have  a  language  eye  for  the  minutest  forms.5 

Sturm's  school  a  type. —  These  things  will  be  more  clearly 
understood  from  a  concrete  example  of  later  Renaissance  peda- 
gogy. This  is  found  in  the  school  of  John  Sturm,  of  Strasburg, 
a  typical  school  of  the  period.0     For  centuries  it  influenced  the 

5  See  Laurie,  Hist,  of  Educ.  Opinion  from  the  Renaissance,  2R  ff. 

6  There  were  other  noted  schools  of  the  period,  but  this  will  prob- 
ably best  serve  as  the  type,  I,  because  it  comes  nearer  the  tradition 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  255 

ideals  of  secondary  teaching.  Fortunately  we  can  get  a  some- 
what more  detailed  outline  of  his  plan  than  is  practicable  in 
many  cases,  for  school  programs  quickly  disappear.  From  the 
published  letters  of  the  great  schoolmaster  to  his  teachers  we 
can  make  out  not  merely  his  general  curriculum,  but  details  for 
each  class.7 

It  is  significant  that  Sturm  was  a  pupil  of  the  Hieronymians. 
They  were  pioneers  in  absorbing  the  spirit  of  the  Revival  and 
in  introducing  into  Northern  Europe  a  new  education, —  new, 
because  fused  with  new  ideals  and  supplied  with  new  and 
fresher  material,  and  because  dealing  at  first  hand  with  inspir- 
ing wholes  of  literature  instead  of  with  bare  epitomes  8  of 
great  works  of  the  past.  But  Sturm  seems  to  have  systematized 
and  formalized  what  in  his  masters  was  freer  and  more  spon- 
taneous. He  did  it  so  successfully  and  with  such  eclat  that 
his  school  was  known  far  and  wide.  He  attracted  the  notice 
even  of  kings  and  princes,  who  became  his  patrons  in  great 
numbers.  His  acquaintance  was  so  extended  and  his  personal- 
ity so  marked  that,  it  is  said,  no  diplomat  passed  through  Stras- 
burg  without  stopping  to  converse  with  him,  and  his  advice  and 
influence  were  sought  in  state  politics. 

In  Sturm's  mind  the  end  of  education  was  "  piety,  knowl- 
edge, and  the  art  of  speaking."  But,  as  he  saw  that  "  knowl- 
edge and  purity  and  elegance  of  diction  distinguished  the  cul- 
tured from  the  uncultured,"  these  became  the  aim  of  school 
discipline. 

He  laid  out  a  curriculum  for  ten  years  of  school  life  applying 
to  boys  from  the  age  of  six  or  seven  up  to  their  entrance  upon 
university  study,  or  some  other  tertiary  curriculum.  Only 
the  last  half  of  his  curriculum  can  be  regarded  as  secondary, 
but  we  need  to  look  at  the  whole  in  order  to  appreciate  the  half. 
This  is  his  scheme.     As  one  reads  he  feels  its  intensity  and  its 

which  we  are  following ;  2,  because  we  have  fuller  details  than  for  most 
schools.  Other  schools  are  noted  in  an  appendix,  and  certain  details 
have  been  given  in  regard  to  them  that  will  be  found  useful  in  inter- 
preting the  new  epoch.  Some  of  these  schools,  it  must  be  confessed, 
give  hints  of  a  more  attractive  pedagogy  than  ruled  in  Sturm's  school, 
but  they  are  not  for  that  reason  better  types  of  the  period. 

7  See  the  American  Journal  of  Education,  4:  167,  401. 

8  Such  epitomes  as  those  of  Capella,  Isidore,  and  other  encyclopaedists 
and  grammarians.     See  Chapter  XII,  Appendix. 


256  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

really  wonderful  organization,  and  is  impressed  with  the  mas- 
terfulness of  the  teacher. 

Sturm's  School  Plan. 
(Uniform  text-books  throughout  the  school.8) 

Class  I. 
The  foundations :  — 

Forms  and  correct  pronunciation  of  letters. 
Reading, —  better  secured  by  teaching  declensions  and  conjuga- 
tions than  by  use  of  the  catechism  (showing  that  reading 
meant  Latin  reading,  and  giving  a  hint  as  to  the  text-books 
in  reading  which  had  been  in  vogue). 
Spelling  and  writing. 
German  catechism  committed  to  memory. 

Class  2. 

More  thorough  work  in  declensions  and  conjugations,  including 
irregulars. 

Latin  vocabulary  (large). —  Names  of  common  objects  arranged  in 
natural  groups.  Also  short  sentences  and  sayings.  Pupils  thus 
made  their  own  dictionaries, —  dictionaries  of  three  depart- 
ments. 

German  catechism. 

Translation  of  modern  Latin.9 

Class  3. 

Drill  on  past  acquisitions. 
Dictionary  making  enlarged. 
More  grammar,  including  etymology. 

Translation  of  Cicero's  letters,  with  constant  reference  to  the  gram- 
mar.    Also  translation  of  modern  Latin. 
German  catechism. 

Class  4. 

Drill  on  past  acquisitions. 
Grammar, —  Latin  syntax. 

Reading  of  Cicero's  letters,  Cato,9  and  modern  Latin.     Transla- 
tion of  Sunday  sermons. 
Style  exercises  (Latin),  involving  all  the  knowledge  thus  far  gained. 
German  catechism  translated  into  classical  Latin. 
Music. 

8  Caesar  was  evidently  not  imposed  on  beginners.  This  text  was  prob- 
ably included  in  the  more  advanced  work  of  Class  8.  It  is  interesting 
to  see  what  hooks  are  chosen  for  early  classes  and  to  review  our  present 
customs  in  the  light  of  Sturm's  curriculum.  Sturm  was  himself  a  pro- 
lific writer  of  new  text-books. 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  257 

Class  5. 

Drill  on  past  acquisitions. 

Reading  of  Cicero's  letters,  Horace,  Terence,  Martial's  epigrams, 
Book  of  Poetry,  Sunday  sermons.10  On  Sundays,  reading  of 
some  letters  of  Hieronymus.10    Translation  of  Latin  catechism. 

Greek  begun. — ^Esop's  Fables. 

Music. 

Class  6. 

Drill  on  past  acquisitions. 

Vocabulary  again, —  names  of  unfamiliar  objects. 

Reading  of  Cicero,  Cato,  Vergil,  second  Book  of  Poetry,  Latin 
Catechism,  Sunday  sermons.  On  Saturdays  and  Sundays  one 
epistle  of  the  New  Testament  to  be  read  and  interpreted.10 

Style  exercises  (Latin). 

Technique  of  poetry.  Verse  writing.  Practice  in  restoring  meters, 
etc. 

Mythology. 

Greek  continued. —  Sunday  sermons  in  Greek  to  be  read. 

Greek  vocabulary  building. 

Class  7. 

Drill  on  past  acquisitions. 

Boys  now  well  provided  with  choice  words  and  illustrations.  Care- 
ful attention  to  be  given  to  listening,  interpreting,  and  repeating 
from  memory. 

Reading  of  Terence,  Cicero,  Horace.  On  Saturday  and  Sunday 
epistles  10  of  the  New  Testament  to  be  paraphrased  from  an- 
other's reading. 

Style  exercises  (Latin). 

Greek  grammar  and  book  of  examples. —  ^sop. 

Class  8. 
Drill  on  past  acquisitions. 
Rhetoric, —  doubtless  from  Latin  treatises. 
Reading  of   Cicero's  letters  and  Cluentius,  Latin  historians  and 

poets,    Demosthenes,    Odyssey,    Greek    historians    and    poets. 

Epistles  translated  and  committed  to  memory. 
Retro-translation  in  both  Latin  and  Greek, —  doubtless  Latin  into 

Greek  and  vice  versa. 
Style  exercises  (Latin).     Style  must  be  incessantly  practiced  and 

improved. 
Greek  and  Latin  poems  changed  into  different  meters. 
Composition  of  many  poems  and  letters  (of  course  in  Latin). 
Plays  of  Plautus  and  Terence  acted,  in  Latin.     (Sturm's  school 

was  equipped  with  a  theater.) 

10  Undoubtedly  all  through  the  medium  of  Latin  and  Greek,  so  that 
even  religious  exercises  served  Sturm's  great  aim. 


258  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Class  9. 

Interpretation  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors. 

Rhetoric,  with  Demosthenes  and  Cicero. 

Iliad,  one  book. 

Epistles  learned  and  recited. 

Relations  between  oratorical  and  poetical  usage.     Comparison  be- 
tween Greek  and  Latin  here. 

Exercises  in  style. 

Dissertations  composed  and  delivered  in  Latin. 

Acting  of  plays  of  Plautus  and  Terence   (in  Latin),  and  a  play 
of  Aristophanes,  Euripides,  or  Sophocles. 

Logic. 

Arithmetic. 

Class  10. 

Logic  and  rhetoric  enlarged;  applied  to  Demosthenes  and  Cicero. 

In  this  connection  also  Vergil  and  Homer  are  to  be  taken  up. 
Thucydides,  Euripides,  Sallust. 

Facility  in  writing  and  declamation  to  be  thoroughly  cultivated. 
Catechism  and  epistles  to  be  expounded,  and  passages  amplified, 

after  the  fashion  of  rhetoricians. 
Astronomy. 
Some  propositions  from  one  book  of  Euclid. 

Special  features  of  the  school. —  This  outline  gives  a  fair 
idea  of  Sturm's  curriculum,  and  of  substantial  portions  of  his 
method  as  well.  There  was  practically  no  modern  language 
work  except  what  was  involved  in  studying  Latin  and  Greek 
with  a  view  to  Sturm's  rather  narrow  aim.  There  was  no 
history  (except  in  Greek  and  Latin),  almost  no  science,  and 
only  a  mere  trifle  of  mathematics.  The  characteristic  features 
of  method  were  formal  grammar  work,  dictation,  copying, 
memorizing11  (though  in  smaller  amount  than  before,  because 
of  the  growing  number  of  printed  books),  incessant  and  vigor- 
ous practice  in  style  exercises,  reading  of  classic  and  modern 
authors  in  fragments  not  in  wholes,  and  constant  use  of  Latin 
in  school  work,  in  conversation,  and  in  dramatic  performances. 
Even  this  brief  summary  perhaps  does  Sturm  more  than  justice, 
for,  while  there  seems  to  be  a  considerable  amount  of  reading 
in  his  curriculum,  it  is  rather  an  episode  in  the  technical  work 
of  composition  and  grammar,  or  a  vehicle  to  take  one  over  the 
road  leading  to  a  command  of  Ciceronian  style,  and  yet  it  did 
give  real  contact  with  Latin  and  Greek  authors. 

11  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  36. 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  259 

Discipline. —  The  tension  of  this  school  is  seen  in  Sturm's 
thought  that  boys  should  be  kept  under  the  discipline  of  the 
rod ;  "  nor  should  they  learn  according  to  their  own  choice,  but 
after  the  good  pleasure  of  the  teacher." 

Comparison  of  Da  Feltre,  Sturm,  and  Quintilian. —  As  Da 
Feltre  made  prominent  the  humanism  of  Quintilian,  so  Sturm 
made  prominent  his  formal  practice  and  drill  —  his  disciplinary 
program.  He  was  terribly  in  earnest ;  he  was  a  master  at  de- 
fining aims  with  great  distinctness,  keeping  them  in  the  fore- 
front of  consciousness,  and  pursuing  them  persistently,  not  to 
say  relentlessly ;  he  was  without  a  rival  in  organization.  Yet 
we  feel  that  his  school  was  a  travesty  of  Quintiliah's,  which  he 
evidently  made  his  model.  We  miss  the  broad  culture  ideal 
and  humanism  of  the  Roman  school,  which  Da  Feltre  illus- 
trated and  really  illuminated  and  improved,  and  we  miss  that 
vital  relation  to  life  that  Quintilian  always  recognized  and 
built  upon.12 

Sturm's  school  a  culmination  and  a  beginning. —  Sturm's 
school  is  especially  interesting  from  several  points  of  view :  — 
1.  As  already  indicated,  it  shows  one  side  of  Quintilian's  plan 
of  education  as  the  later  Renaissance  interpreted  (or  distorted) 
it.  2.  It  represents  a  kind  of  culmination  of  the  city  school 
development  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter ;  for  it  was  the 
Gymnasium  of  Strasburg.  3.  It  represents  the  beginning  of 
modern  secondary  school  development  in  which  the  limits  of 
secondary  education  had  become  rather  clearly  denned.  Only 
a  few  years  after  Sturm's  death  the  first  secondary  school  in 
America  was  established.  Sturm's  was  a  type-school.  The 
Jesuit  secondary  schools,  which  represented  organized  educa- 
tion for  a  long  time,13  were  copies  of  this  school,  which  they 
moulded  to  their  purposes.  The  final  development  of  Renais- 
sance secondary  education  was  thus  the  starting  point  for  the 
modern  period.  So  incisive  was  the  work  of  Sturm's  school, 
so  conspicuous  were  its  relations  to  the  strongest  forces  in 
Christendom,  that  it  was  the  commanding  influence  in  second- 

12  Other  schools  apparently  show  less  tension  and  less  of  the  formal. 
See  Appendix  1   (b). 

13  In  fact  they  were  the  only  examples  of  organized  education,  since 
other  schools  were  isolated  units  rather  than  parts  of  a  system. 


26o  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

ary  education.  Its  importance  is  not  realized  fully  till  we  take 
account  of  another  impressive  fact  closely  associated  with  the 
Renaissance,  the  remarkable  multiplication  of  secondary 
schools.14 

In  the  typical  curriculum  of  the  late  Renaissance  therefore 
Latin  was  far  the  largest  element.  Greek  was  a  lagging  minor. 
There  was  little  else.  Latin  and  Latin  method  overshadowed 
everything  in  Sturm's  school.  Hence  a  knowledge  of  method 
became  a  knowledge  of  Latin  method.  It  was  a  phase  of  the 
so-called  classical  method  that,  with  few  changes,  predominated 
for  centuries. 

Other  Renaissance  educators  —  The  progressives. —  The 
two  types  of  school  that  we  have  been  studying  represent  two 
views  of  education  that  had  influence  in  their  respective 
periods.  But  the  Renaissance  discloses  noted  names  besides 
those  already  mentioned.  Men  with  as  keen  insight  into  the 
educational  process  as  that  of  Da  Feltre,  far  keener  than  that 
of  Sturm,  who  hardly  knew  education  as  a  process,  were  formu- 
lating new  principles  and  sometimes  applying  them  in  a  limited 
way.15  If  we  should  generalize  from  these  reformers  we 
should  get  a  third  type  for  the  period,  a  prophetic  one,  that  must 
stand  side  by  side  with  the  schools  of  Da  Feltre  and  Sturm.  In 
Sturm's  time,  or  in  close  proximity  to  it,  we  find  advocacy  of 
new  studies,  new  books,10  attention  to  things  in  place  of  words, 
mastery  of  language  by  use,  regard  for  content  and  literary 
values,  the  use  of  the  vernacular  as  the  class-room  medium  of 
expression,  individual  investigation  and  discovery,  new  school 
houses,  better  qualifications  for  teaching,17  more  pedagogical 

14  See  page  279. 

15  See  Appendix  1  (a). 

16  See  Hazlitt,  op.  cit.,  Chapter  IV  ff.  Appendix  3  to  this  chapter 
gives  summaries  of  noted  text-books  of  the  period.  Conf.  De  Mont- 
morency, op.  cit.,  75,  and  especially  77. 

Bookseller  John  Dome's  account  book,  which  has  been  preserved, 
shows  that  ABC  books,  primers,  and  new  Latin  textbooks  were  his 
"  best  sellers."    Hazlitt,  op.  cit.,  87-8. 

17  Aside  from  much  other  evidence  of  pressure  in  this  direction  a 
movement  for  bettering  conditions  took  definite  form  in  Cambridge 
in  1441  in  the  establishment  of  a  training  school  for  grammar  (Latin) 
teachers  for  the  benefit,  particularly,  of  country  schools.  Mulcaster  was 
perhaps  the  first  Englishman  to  raise  his  voice  for  making  a  profession 
of  that  which  makes  all  other  professions.    See  Quick,  Educ.  Ref.,  100. 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  261 

discipline.  Noted  reformers  were  stirring  the  school  world  by 
their  applications  of  reformed  pedagogy  to  teaching.18  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  after  centuries  of  waiting, 
the  cumulative  effect  of  all  this,  with  more  recent  additions, 
appeared  in  the  reluctant  enrichment  of  the  secondary  school 
curriculum  and  method. 

Some  contrasted  ideas. —  Again,  over  against  these  progres- 
sive facts,  must  be  placed  others  that  are  less  attractive.  Text- 
books were  still  scarce  and  often  not  in  the  hands  of  pupils. 
It  was  necessary  to  have  matter  copied  from  dictation,  then 
divided,  construed,  and  explained  (a  bit  of  method  inherited 
from  scholasticism).  Students  took  away  great  copy-books 
containing  their  acquisitions.  Platter  tells  us  that  in  studying 
Terence  the  teacher  read,  and  pupils  had  to  decline  and  conju- 
gate every  word  of  whole  comedies.  He  himself  had  to  learn 
Donatus  by  heart.19  Even  Melanchthon  rings  the  changes  on 
grammatical  drill  and  advocates  repeated  journeys  through  the 
grammar,  and  the  learning  of  all  rules  by  heart.  Luther,  who 
speaks  of  learning  as  an  "  exercise  of  the  memory,  or  a  gladia- 
torial exercise,"  feelingly  characterizes  it  as  pitiable  that  a  boy 
should  spend  many  years  only  to  learn  bad  Latin  sufficient  for 
becoming  a  priest  and  saying  mass.20  As  to  favorite  books,  he 
says  that,  next  to  monastic  works,  Terence  and  Plautus  were 
studied,  as  the  readiest  means  of  learning  colloquial  Latin. 
He  tells  us  that  he  himself,  at  Mansfield,  learned  some  church 
passages,  etc.,  Donatus,  the  child's  grammar,  and  church  music. 
Of  "  bacchant  teachers,"  21  who  were  frequently  assistants  in 
the  schools,  he  declares  that  they  neither  loved  nor  understood 
the  art  of  teaching  better  than  they  did  the  nature  of  true 

18  Rabelais'  characterization  of  the  old  education  and  his  enthusiastic 
presentation  of  the  new  show  that  a  new  order  of  things  was  pushing 
its  way  to  the  front.    He  typified  the  Renaissance  spirit. 

19  Grammars  have  been  thus  "  learned "  in  our  schools  within  fifty 
years. 

20  Luther's  Schools,—  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24 :  99  ff. 

21  An  appreciable  element  in  the  schools  of  the  day  was  of  a  nomad 
nature.  Youths  roved  the  country,  either  as  adventure  students,  mov- 
ing at  will  from  school  to  school,  and  characteristically  protected  from 
ordinary  processes  when  they  broke  moral  and  civil  law,  or,  more  pur- 
posefully, seeking  some  subordinate  employment  in  schools  and  church. 
Some  of  our  present  crudenesses  in  school  customs  are  inheritances 
from  the  codes  of  this  time.    Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ,  24 :  90  ff.,  et  al. 


262  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

religion,  whose  servants  they  professed  to  be.  They  did  not 
study  the  character  and  disposition  of  pupils,  they  taught 
mechanically,  and  they  ruled  by  hard  and  brutal  force.  They 
presented  a  sombre  appearance  and  lived  in  sombre  surround- 
ings, for  they  wore  a  dark  monastic  dress  and  occupied  large 
buildings  with  gloomy  cells.  Referring  to  the  character  of  edu- 
cation the  same  author  informs  us  that  in  school  life  a  large 
portion  of  each  forenoon  was  devoted  to  the  church,  and  again 
that  little  attention  was  given  to  what  was  taught,  that  not  a 
single  branch  of  study  was  taught  as  it  should  be,  that  every- 
thing still  wore  the  garb  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  that  there 
were  no  experiments  or  observations  in  natural  philosophy  and 
no  accurate  criticism  in  language  and  history.22  Erasmus 
exclaims  as  to  the  profound  ignorance  of  teachers  in  general  in 
such  matters  as  geography  and  natural  history,  which  were 
needed  for  the  explanation  of  the  classics.23  Hallam  makes 
the  education  of  a  gentleman  of  the  first  class  in  England  at 
this  time  consist  of  reading,  writing,  considerable  familiarity 
with  French,  and  a  slight  tincture  of  Latin  (though  Leach 
adds  that  the  French  should  probably  be  reduced  and  the  Latin 
increased).  One  of  our  most  prominent  authorities  sums  up 
the  case  for  Renaissance  method  in  this  way : 

"  For  the  ordinary  boy,  as  for  the  ordinary  teacher,  school  life, 
as  distinguished  from  university  life,  was  almost  as  dreary  as 
ever.  Grammar  was  the  despot  and  rote-memory  the  slave.  Verb- 
alism again  reasserted  itself,  though  now,  it  is  true,  with  higher 
aims  so  far  as  language  was  concerned.  The  attempt  to  intro- 
duce '  real  studies,'  even  history,  broke  down."  24 

All  this  was  surely  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  work  of  the 
master  teachers  whose  plans  aroused  such  admiration.  The 
work  of  the  latter,  it  is  true,  best  represented  the  new  epoch,  but 

22  Eggleston,  op.  cit.,  260-1,  says  that  commercial  subjects  acted  as 
intruders  in  the  Latin  schools  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. He  might  use  similar  language  as  to  other  subjects  for  a  much 
later  date. 

23  This  is  one  of  the  most  significant  observations  of  the  time.  In 
earlier  days  (see  Quintilian,  who  probably  followed  still  older  educa- 
tors) it  was  a  fixed  practice  to  correlate  the  classics  and  other  subjects 
needed  for  their  "  explicatio."  The  fact  that  even  this  correlated  work 
is  now  lacking  is  strong  evidence  of  the  dwindling  of  curriculum  ideals. 

24  See  School  Rev.  4:2O0ff. ;  Davidson,  Hist,  of  Educ,  178-9. 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  263 

they  were  outnumbered  by  school  masters  of  smaller  calibre  and 
narrower  attainments.25  Representations  of  the  period  show 
the  master  dictating  and  the  pupil  copying.20  This  was  an  easy 
attitude  to  cover  any  deficiencies,  and  made  teaching  possible 
for  persons  of  the  most  meagre  equipment.  Hazlitt  says  of 
England  that  the  majority  of  masters  and  ushers  perhaps  needed 
interlinear  helps.  They  served  merely  as  a  medium  for  con- 
veying lessons  found  in  treatises  prepared  by  the  more  learned.27 

State  schools. —  We  have  thus  to  consider  several  school 
ideals  in  the  Renaissance  centuries.  There  were  also  several 
school  forms  from  the  point  of  view  of  organization  and  rela- 
tions to  civic  authorities.  The  period  preceding  the  early  uni- 
versities developed  a  special  type  of  school.28  The  church 
school  was  prominent  everywhere  and  left  no  room  for  competi- 
tion. This  type  still  existed  in  the  period  we  are  studying,  but 
it  was  now  overshadowed  by  other  school  forms  that  the  more 
independent  spirit  of  succeeding  centuries  had  developed. 
Conditions  favored  more  spontaneity  and  more  variety  in  school 
polity.  More  than  once  reference  has  been  made  to  the  part 
the  more  democratic  spirit  and  the  rising  commercial  ideas  in 
the  cities  were  playing  in  establishing  schools  and  dictating 
educational  policy.  The  city  school  thus  became  the  prominent 
factor  in  public  education.29  But  the  idea  of  public  control  had 
now  grown  beyond  this  stage.  State  schools,  the  foreshadow- 
ing of  state  systems,  began  as  early  as  1550.  30  These  schools, 
however,  represented  variety  in  form  and  organization  rather 
than  in  ideals,  studies,  or  methods.  Any  school,  to  have  stand- 
ing, must  follow  the  type  plan  of  the  Renaissance  in  these 
respects. 

In  all  these  Renaissance  movements,  however,  we  must  note 
that  the  real  aim  was  not  to  emancipate  schools  from  clerical 

25  See  Leach,  op.  cit.,  103  ff. 

26  See  frontispieces  in  favorite  textbooks. 

27  Hazlitt,  op.  cit.,  29;  conf.  112,  159. 
2s  See  Chap.  XII. 

29  See  Appendix  2,  giving  results  of  Leach's  investigations  as  to 
English  education  of  the  period.  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  29  ff.,  gives  evi- 
dence that  a  similar  state  of  things  existed  in  Germany. 

30  Nohle,  op.  cit.,  32 ;  De  Montmorency,  op.  cit.,  67,  69  ff..  73,  75,  86. 
102-3,  105,  191-96,  201.  Prefaces  to  old  text-books  mentioned  in  the  ap- 
pendix show  that  even  state  text-books  had  come  into  use. 


264  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

influence,  but  to  broaden  church  schools  and  to  add  lay  schools 
that  should  afford,  for  the  rising  non-clerical  occupations  and 
professions  of  a  new  civilization,  a  kind  of  training  essential 
for  their  survival  and  growth. 


APPENDIX  I 

(a)     Some  Reformers. 

Agricola  in  his  "  De  Formando  Studio  "  inveighs  against  verbalism, 
advocates  geography,  botany,  geology,  etc.,  lays  stress  on  the  vernacu- 
lar as  a  necessary  antecedent  to  Latin  work,  and  would  have  indi- 
vidual thought  and  investigation.  He  is  at  the  same  time  inspired  by  the 
new  enthusiasm  for  classical  study.     (See  Mullinger,  Camb.,  411-12.) 

Erasmus  (1467-1536)  was  an  acknowledged  leader  in  the  Renais- 
sance. Some  bits  from  his  educational  views  come  in  well  here.  Ac- 
cording to  him  the  key  to  Latin  method  was  the  object  lesson  and  the 
literary  anecdote.  Begin  early,  he  says,  when  the  imitative  tendency 
is  strong.  It  is  good  for  the  boy  to  be  among  talkative  people.  He 
learns  more  thoroughly  and  readily  if  the  thing  discussed  is  depicted, 
and  the  words  are  mastered  because  attached  to  a  vivid  object  of 
thought.  He  would  have  tales  from  the  classics  and  /Esop.  Brief, 
pithy  quotations  and  sayings  of  illustrious  men  are  to  be  learned.  As 
to  grammar  he  says,  "  While  I  appreciate  the  necessity  of  this,  I 
should  wish  it  taught  in  the  least  possible  compass  and  only  what  is 
best.  I  have  never  approved  of  the  custom  of  keeping  boys  grinding  at 
this  subject  for  several  years."  He  would  teach  Greek  and  Latin 
together,  making  them  support  one  another.  Reading  Latin  authors 
should  begin  as  soon  as  possible.  First  should  come  Terence,  whose 
style  is  pure,  terse,  colloquial,  and  whose  subjects  naturally  interest 
the  child.  Some  of  the  less  objectional  plays  of  Plautus  might  be 
added.  Then  should  come  (in  this  order)  Vergil,  Horace,  Cicero, 
Csesar.  Sallust  might  join  the  list.  These  are  sufficient  for  the  mastery 
of  Latin.     (Clark,  "Latin  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  Renaissance.") 

We  should  note  Erasmus'  advocacy  of  geography,  natural  history, 
etc.,  but  as  an  aid  in  the  study  of  the  classics.  His  general  scheme 
reminds  one  of  Quintilian. 

Melanchthon  (1497-1560)  was  perhaps  the  most  indefatigable  in  mak- 
ing books  and  modernizing  methods.  His  plan  of  teaching  reminds  one 
of  Sturm. 

Luther  (1483-1546)  and  Zwingli  (1484-1531)  represented  more  ad- 
vanced views  in  education  than  the  times  could  digest.  Physical  train- 
ing, the  study  of  the  vernacular,  history  and  mathematics,  and,  in 
the  direction  of  method,  language  by  use,  and  things  before  words,  were 
advocated  by  one  or  both  of  them.  The  toning  of  method  may  be  judged 
by  Luther's  remark  that  in  his  time  they  could  learn  in  "  sport."    This 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  265 

would  seem  to  us  to  be  a  strange  characterization  of  such  education  as 
even  the  new  times  gave,  but  it  serves  to  emphasize  in  our  minds  the 
drastic  and  unnatural  education  of  earlier  days  with  which  Luther  was 
contrasting  current  education.  Luther  was  a  pioneer  also  in  arguing 
for  universal  education  and  for  a  gradation  of  schools.  He  found 
discouraging  conditions  into  which  he  threw  his  new  leaven.  In  a  tract 
entitled  "  De  Constituendis  Scholis "  he  says,  "  Principio  videmus  per 
totam  Germana  scolas  collabi,  gymnasia  studiosorum  infrequetia  frigere, 
monasteria  monarchis  profugis  deferi." 

Trotzendorf  (1490-1556)  had  an  enterprising  curriculum  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  involving  the  speaking  of  Latin  exclusively  and  the  writing 
of  themes  in  classical  Latin,  logic  and  rhetoric  based  on  Cicero,  music, 
natural  philosophy,  and  arithmetic  (though  it  may  be  that  the  two  latter 
came  later, —  really  after  the  secondary  curriculum.  (See  Neander.) 
In  the  early  course  in  Harvard  College  arithmetic  came  in  the  senior 
year. 

Trotzendorf  is,  however,  particularly  distinguished  for  his  method 
and  his  enlightened  ideas  of  government.  A  remarkable  unity  of 
feeling  between  pupil  and  teacher,  a  successful  scheme  of  co-operation 
in  school  government  that  sounds  modern,  and  pupil-teaching,  show  the 
vigor  and  resourcefulness  of  the  man. 

Rabelais  (1483-1553)  was  perhaps  more  vigorous  in  his  strictures 
on  the  old  and  his  advocacy  of  better  things  than  most  leaders.  He 
would  add  real  studies,  teach  objectively,  and  include  physical  culture 
and  manual  work  in  the  program  for  the  education  of  Pantagruel. 
His  curriculum  included  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee  and  Arabic, 
arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  the  study  of  nature,  and  music.  Com- 
paring the  education  of  the  time  with  that  of  his  youth  he  says,  "  the 
time  then  was  not  so  proper  and  fit  for  learning  as  at  present,  neither 
had  I  plenty  of  such  good  masters  as  thou  hast  had,  for  that  time 
was  darksome,  obscured  with  clouds  of  ignorance  and  savoring  a  little 
of  the  infelicity  and  calamity  of  the  Goths,  who  had,  wherever  they 
set  footing,  destroyed  all  good  literature,  which  in  my  age  hath  by  the 
divine  goodness  been  restored  unto  its  former  light  and  dignity,  and 
that  with  such  amendment  and  increase  of  knowledge  that  now  hardly 
should  I  be  admitted  unto  the  first  form  of  the  little  grammar  school 
boys;  I  say  I,  who  in  my  youthful  days  was  (and  that  justly)  reputed 
the  most  learned  of  that  age.  ...  I  see  the  robbers,  hangmen,  adven- 
turers, ostlers  of  to-day  more  learned  than  the  doctors  and  preachers 
of  my  youth."     See  Quick,  Educ.  Reformers. 

Neander  (1525-1595)  had  an  enterprising  curriculum,  including  a 
wide  course  of  reading  in  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew,  logic  and  rhetoric, 
physics,  geography,  and  history,  for  which  he  made  text  books  to 
suit  himself.  But  the  secondary  period  was  given  chiefly  to  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  and,  at  the  very  end  of  the  period,  logic  and  rhetoric,  while 
the  other  studies  waited  till  after  the  eighteenth  year.  The  advance 
is  shown  in  the  new  life  in  classical  teaching,  in  the  recognition  of 


266  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

new  studies,  which,  though  they  came  late  in  the  curriculum,  still  could 
claim  recognition,  and  in  the  questioning  of  the  old. 

Here  came  in  also  the  great  names  of  Montaigne  0533-1592),  Ratke 
(1571-1655),  and  Comenius  (1592-1670),  who  tried  to  bring  into  notice 
a  curriculum  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  times  and  to  the  nature 
of  the  individual  to  be  educated.  Thus  the  mother  tongue,  nature, 
science,  and  history  were  coming  to  view  and  winning  some  attention, 
while  more  concrete  methods  and  a  definite  idea  of  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples as  a  basis  for  method  gave  better  conditions  for  interest  in  the 
educational  process.  Note,  e.g.,  Montaigne's  advocacy  of  the  mother 
tongue  as  the  first  object  of  attention,  and  of  the  study  of  things  in 
place  of  words,  and  Comenius'  devotion  to  objective  work,  to  school 
organization,  in  which  he  provides  for  a  well  articulated  school  system, 
and  to  a  more  fruitful  course  of  study  in  which  history,  geography, 
science,  and  mathematics  are  conspicuous. 

(b)     Some  Special  Schools  and  Schoolmasters. 

Colet's  School,  St.  Paul's,  in  which  Lily  was  the  great  teacher.  The 
school  was  Colet's  in  the  sense  that  he  founded  it.  He  established  a  pure 
classical  curriculum,  but  informed  it  with  Renaissance  ideas,  as  seen 
in  his  insistence  that  the  aim  should  be  "the  very  Roman  tongue."  In 
gaining  this  end,  however,  both  modern  and  ancient  authors  were 
to  be  used.  In  accord  with  the  better  pedagogical  ideas  of  the  new 
times  he  also  made  method  more  pedagogical.  "  The  best  way  to  learn 
Latin,"  he  says,  "  is  by  reading,  and  not  by  studying  of  the  grammar, — 
by  example,  and  not  by  committing  rules  to  memory."  St.  Paul's  was 
the  first  school  in  England  to  teach  Greek. 

Early  in  the  next  century  we  find  this  school  enlarging  the  curriculum 
beyond  the  bounds  left  by  mediaeval  scholasticism.  An  "Outline  of 
Rhetoric  for  St.  Paul's  "  was  brought  out  in  1639. 

The  Ipswich  School,  under  Woolsey,  in  1483,  offered  a  more  enter- 
prising curriculum  than  St.  Paul's.  It  included  a  humanistic  study 
of  a  wider  range  of  literature;  but  it  was  a  thorough  classical  school 
largely  given  to  a  study  of  Latin.  Woolsey  wrote  a  little  treatise  on 
the  instruction  of  boys,  giving  his  plan  and  method :  — 

Class  1:  —  Grammar, —  the  eight  parts  of  speech. 

Class  2:  —  The  practical  speaking  of  Latin.  Some  translation  of 
both  kinds,  with  a  view  to  quality  of  thought  in  the  English-Latin 
translation,  and  purity  of  accent  in  reading  Latin. 

Class  3 :  —  ^Esop  and  Terence,  to  form  a  familiar  style.  More  gram- 
mar. 

Class  4:  —  Vergil.  More  grammar,  as  to  which  he  says,  "  But  although 
I  confess  such  things  are  necessary,  yet  as  far  as  possible  we  could  wish 
them  so  appointed  as  not  to  occupy  the  more  valuable  part  of  the 
day." 

Class  5:  —  Cicero,  seemingly  with  reference  to  style. 

Class  6 :  —  Caesar  and  Sallust.    Lily's  syntax. 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  267 

Class  7:  — Horace  and  Ovid.  Occasional  composition  of  a  verse  or 
an    epistle.     Translation    and     retro-translation    of    verse.     "  Memory 

gems." 

Class  8:— "Higher  precepts  of  grammar."  Donatus'  figures,  etc. 
Any  ancient  author  whatever  in  the  Latin  tongue.  Thorough  treatment 
of  the  text,  including  technical  points,  beauties  of  style,  etc.  Careful 
attention  to  speech  in  the  recreation  hour.  Occasionally  "  some  pretty 
subject"  for  a  short  epistle  in  the  vernacular.  Formulae  to  guide  in 
theme  writing. 

Harsh  discipline  and  all  sorts  of  tyranny  to  be  avoided;  "for  by  this 
injurious  treatment  all  sprightliness  of  genius  either  is  destroyed  or  is 
at  any  rate  considerably  damaged." 

At  intervals  attention  should  be  relaxed  and  recreation  introduced, 
but  recreation  of  an  elegant  nature  worthy  of  polite  literature.  "  Even 
with  his  studies  pleasure  should  be  so  intimately  blended  that  a  boy 
may  think  it  rather  a  game  of  teaching  than  a  task."  He  also  cau- 
tions against  overexertion,  which  overwhelms  the  faculties,  and  fatigue. 

The  curriculum  of  George  Buchanan  (1506-1587)  covered  six  years 
and  was  given  to  a  concentrated  Latin  and  Greek  course.  Pupils  spoke 
Latin  and  wrote  a  daily  Latin  theme.  The  first  reading  book  was 
Terence,  which  was  followed  by  Cicero,  Ovid,  Vergil,  and  Horace. 
Greek  came  in  the  fourth  year. 

Ascham  (1515-1568),  a  noted  English  schoolmaster  who  divides  hon- 
ors with  Sturm,  was  also  a  student  of  education.  He  studied  famous 
methods  and  schemes  of  earlier  days,  and  formulated  one  of  his  own 
which  had  so  much  good  sense  in  it  that  it  has  found  its  way  to  our 
day.  He  was  influenced  by  Sturm,  or  better  he  was  a  friend  of  Sturm. 
The  influence  was  perhaps  mutual.  At  any  rate  he  was  not  a  mere 
copyist,  but  a  forceful  investigator  and  originator.  His  observations 
as  to  Latin  teaching  have  been  used  to  inspire  better  teaching  at  the 
present  time.  Recently  an  American  teacher  has  given  distinction  to 
a  Latin  book  by  quoting  from  Ascham  with  great  approval. 

Ascham  advocated  the  comparative  method  of  teaching  Latin,  which 
involved  inductive  features  and  gave  prominence  to  the  vernacular.  By 
these  means,  through  imitation,  practice,  and  special  exercises,  some  of 
them,  it  must  be  confessed,  still  dry  and  formal,  he  provided  an  in- 
tensive training  calculated  to  give  pupils  a  real  knowledge  of  Latin. 
Discipline  was  equally  revised  in  his  scheme,  and  new  studies  were 
added  to  the  Latin  curriculum;  at  least  he  included  physical  training. 

For   other  programs   see   Monroe,   Thomas    Platter   and   the   Educ. 

Ren.,  63  ff. 

These  views  of  reformers  and  details  of  special  schools  and  school- 
masters indicate  the  real  contributions  to  education  from  the  Renais- 
sance movement.  Almost  every  one  of  the  men  referred  to  made 
religious  training  an  essential,  if  not  the  essential,  of  school  work,  thus 
following  the  traditions  of  monastic  schools  which  were  their  intel- 
lectual   parents.    As    has    been    noted,    much    school    time   was   given 


268  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

to  church  service  even  in  the  later  Renaissance.  These  traditions,  how- 
ever, were  re-created  and  reformed  according  to  Reformation  ideals. 
The  religious  nature  of  education  comes  out  clearly  in  the  case  of 
Luther,  Melanchthon,  Zvvingli,  Colet,  Trotzendorf,  and  may  justly  be 
assumed  in  the  case  of  all.  The  text-books  of  the  days  were  very  re- 
ligious and  supplied  religious  forms. 

APPENDIX  II 

Classes  of  Schools. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  different  classes  of  schools  which  we  find 
in  this  period :  — 81 

1.  Cathedral  schools, —  still  existing  in  small  numbers. 

2.  "  College  schools,"  i.e.,  grammar  schools  connected  with  col- 
legiate churches.  (Collegiate  churches  were  similar  to  cathedral 
churches,  only  they  were  not  so  closely  connected  with  the  Bishop  and 
were  not  the  seat  of  his  government.  Grammar  schools  seem  to  have 
been  a  more  essential  part  of  a  collegiate  church  than  of  a  cathedral. 
There  were  large  numbers  of  these  schools. 

3.  Monastery  schools,  or  schools  for  which  the  monasteries  were 
trustees. —  Comparatively  few. 

4.  Grammar  schools  connected  with  hospitals  (almshouses)  as  a  part 
of  the  foundation. —  Few. 

5.  Chantry  schools,  kept  by  chantry  priests.  The  history  of  these 
church  functionaries  and  their  schools  would  make  a  very  interesting 
topic.  It  would  perhaps  be  fair  to  say  that  they  were  religious  schools 
of  an  elementary  grade. 

6.  Guild   schools, —  founded   by  guilds ;   of  grammar   school    grade. 

7.  Independent  schools,  like  St.  Paul's.  In  such  cases  schools  were 
the  main  object  of  the  foundations.  Their  object  was  not  joined  with 
any  ecclesiastical  purpose.  There  was  even  no  requirement  that  the 
teachers  should  be  priests. 

1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5  may  be  classed  together  as  ecclesiastical.  No.  6 
was  perhaps  similar  to  city  schools  and  prohably  had  some  church 
relations.  No.  7  is  a  new  creation.  All  but  5  were  grammar  schools, 
and  for  curriculum  and  method  may  be  considered  together. 

These  are  the  schools  found  in  England.  The  list  for  Germany  would 
be  similar,  except  that  we  must  add  a  school  which  was  especially 
typical  of  that  country,  the  City  Latin  School,  or  Gymnasium. 

APPENDIX  III 

Some  Old   Renaissance  Text-Books. 

I.  Lac  Puerorum  (Mylk  for  Chyldren),  M.  Holti,  1526,  first  printed 
in  1497. 

81  See  Leach,  Eng.  Schools  at  the  Reformation,  Chapters  1-9. 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  269 

Frontispiece,— a  picture  of  a  school  room.  Windows  high.  Panelled 
ceiling.  Throne-like  chair  with  master  seated  on  it,  mild  and  deliber- 
ate in  attitude,  but  holding  a  bristling  bunch  of  rods  in  his  right  hand, 
while  his  left  is  in  a  position  of  gesture,  as  though  illustrating  some 
of  the  graphic  devices  of  the  book.  Children  in  a  circle  before  him 
sitting  on  low  benches  on  a  flagstone  floor. 

Brief  abstract  of  contents. 

1.  Dedicatory  and  explanatory  verse  in  Latin. 

2.  Parts  of  speech,  with  remarks. 

3.  Declension  of  the  article,  so-called,  i.e.,  hie.  There  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  a  hand,  and  a  case  and  its  plural  are  inscribed  on  each 
finger,  the  name  of  the  case  following  the  form.  The  thumb  has  two 
cases,  the  nominative  on  the  upper  part,  the  ablative  on  the  lower,— to 
even  the  declension-forms. 

4.  Declension  of  nouns  and  remarks.  Eight  classes  of  nouns, — 
proper,  appellative,  substantive,  adjective,  interrogative,  demonstrative, 
reddityf,  and  relatyf, —  but  no  examples  are  given. 

5.  The  a-declension. 

6.  The  us-declension,  with  hand  device. 

7.  Third,  fourth,  and  fifth  declensions  follow,  not  graphically  ar- 
ranged and  in  solid  black  letter  paragraphs, —  not  easy  to  decipher. 

8.  Declension  of  adjectives  as  in  7,  but  all  forms  are  given. 

9.  Another  graphic  hand  device,  giving  a  summary  of  case  endings 
of  all  declensions. 

10.  Comparison. 

11.  Classification  and  declension  of  pronouns,  primitive  and  rela- 
tive. 

12.  Conjugation, —  general  facts  followed  by  inflections:  —  shewynge 
mode,  askynge  mode,  byddynge  mode,  wysshynge  mode,  potencyall 
mode,  subjunctyf  mode,  infinityf  mode. 

13.  Other  parts  of  speech. 

14.  Deffinicyon  of  nownes  (including  the  common  classes,  proper, 
appellative,  substantive,  adjective).  "A  nowne  betokeneth  a  thing  with- 
out any  difference  of  tyme." — "  The  name  of  all  I  may  see,  fele,  or 
perceyve  by  ony  of  my  fyve  wytes  is  a  nowne." 

15.  Accidents  of  nouns. 

16.  Accidents  of  verbs.  His  definition  of  a  verb  is  this,  "  A  verb 
betokeneth  a  thynge  with  some  token  of  tyme."  Verbs  are  divided  into 
substantyve,  as  sum,  existo,  maneo ;  vocatyve,  as  nomino;  adjectyve 
(including  all  other  verbs  which  do  not  come  under  the  first  two 
classes),  as  amo,  lego. 

17.  Accidents  of  other  parts  of  speech. 

18.  The  three  "  concords  "  and  syntax.  A  curious  topic  in  the  con- 
cords or  syntax  is,  "the  strength  of  compelynge  case  (referring  to  verbs 
which  take  the  same  case  after  as  before). 

The  book  ends  with  "  Thome  More  Epigramma "  and  some  Latin 
verses. 


270  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

In  this  book  the  attempt  to  add  interest  and  life  to  method  and  to 
relieve  the  old  abstractness  is  very  noticeable. 

2.  A  Shorte  Introduction  of  Grammar  generally  to  be  used,  Compyled 
and  set  forth  for  the  bringing  up  of  all  those  that  intende  to  attayne 
the  knowledge  of  the  Latine  tongue. —  1577. 

1.  Elizabeth's  proclamation  commanding  the  use  of  this  text-book 
for  uniformity. 

2.  A  foreword  to  the  reader  on  the  necessity  of  a  good  founda- 
tion. Reasons  for  the  difficulty  of  attaining  this  are  given: — "Because 
that  they  who  professed  the  arte  of  teaching  grammar  did  teach  divers 
grammars  and  not  one,  and  if  by  chaunce  they  taught  one  Grammar, 
yet  they  did  it  diversly,  and  so  could  not  do  it  all  beste,  because  there 
is  but  one  bestnesse,  not  only  in  everything,  but  also  in  the  manner 
of  everything."  The  writer  goes  on  to  say  that  the  first  difficulty  has 
been  avoided  by  causing  "  one  kinde  of  Grammar  by  sundry  learned 
men  to  be  diligently  drawne,  and  so  to  be  set  out  onely  everywhere 
to  be  taught  for  the  use  of  learners,  and  for  the  hurt  in  chaung- 
ing  of  schoolmaisters."  But  he  frankly  acknowledges  that  diversity 
of  teaching  continues  and  always  will,  because  of  human  nature.  With 
a  fine  touch  of  modesty  he  adds,  "  It  is  not  amisse,  if  one  seeing  by  triall 
an  easier  and  readyer  way  than  the  common  sort  of  teachers  doe,  would 
saye  what  he  hath  proued."  And  then  he  goes  on  to  give  the  following 
advice  and  suggestions :  —  1.  That  the  "  diligent  Payster  make  not 
the  scholer  haste  to  much."  2.  There  should  be  plenty  of  examples 
in  declensions  and  conjugations,  a  matter  in  which  the  old  grammars 
were  noticeably  deficient,  so  that  the  scholar  may  know  all  words.  3. 
"This  when  he  can  perfectly  doe  and  hath  learned  every  part,  not  by 
rote,  but  by  reason,  and  is  cunninger  in  the  understanding  of  the 
thing  than  in  the  rehearsing  of  the  words, —  then  let  him  passe  to  the 
Concordes,  to  know  the  agreement  of  the  partes  among  themselves."  4. 
There  should  be  "  playne  and  sundry  examples  "  and  daily  practice  on 
"  declension  of  verbs,"  apparently  with  sentence  framing.  5.  "  When 
these  Concordes  be  well  knowne  unto  them,  an  easie  and  a  pleasaunt 
payne,  they  are  to  come  to  some  preatie  booke  wherin  is  contayned 
not  only  the  eloquence  of  the  tongue,  but  also  a  good  playne  lesson 
of  honesty  and  godlinesse,"  which  reminds  one  of  Quintilian.  With  this 
comes  retrotranslation  and  the  learning  of  syntax  rules  as  occasion 
comes.  6.  The  "  Payster  "  is  to  be  continually  busy  with  the  pupil  and 
is  not  to  construe  the  principle,  "  there  is  no  haste,"  into  license  to  teach 
a  little  and  then  leave  the  pupil  to  himself.  7.  Use  of  Latin  is  ad- 
vised. 8.  The  turning  of  an  English  book  into  Latin  is  more  useful 
than  ordinary  translation. 

3.  Analytics  of  letters. 

4.  A  Latin  prayer  and  the  English  translation. 

5.  Analytics  of  parts  of  speech  with  declensions  and  conjugations 


THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE  271 

rather  skilfully  laid  out.  The  subjunctive  in  regular  verbs  is  called 
optative;  in  sum,  etc.,  and  in  passives,  it  is  called  potential  and  sub- 
junctive. 

6.  The  Concordes, —  between  verb  and  noun,  substantive  and  adjec- 
tive, antecedent  and  relative.  The  second  concord  is  rather  strikingly 
stated: — "An  adjective,  whether  it  be  a  noune,  pronoune,  or  participle, 
agreeeth  with  his  substantive  in  case,  gender,  and  number."  The  con- 
cept, adjective,  had  considerably  more  extension  than  at  present. 

7.  Constructions  of  nouns,  substantives,  adjectives,  etc. 

All  this  in  black  letter  and  evidently  giving  the  mere  essentials  of 
grammar.  Then  follows,  in  Latin,  Lily's  Grammar,  probably  the  Brevis- 
sima  Institutio. 

Brief  abstract  of  the  Institutio. 

1.  Guilielmi  Lilii  ad  suos  di?cipulos  monita  paedagogica,  seu  carmen 
de  maribus, —  a  poem  of  about  eight  lines. 

2.  Symbolum  Apostolorum  (an  elaborate  Apostles'  creed),  and  a 
Praecatio  Dominica. 

3.  The  Decalog. 

4.  Baptismus   (Christ's  last  words  to  His  disciples.) 

5.  Coena  Dominica  (introduction  to  the  Lord's  supper.) 

6.  Puer  orans  ante  cibum, —  four  specimens. 

All  this  shows  the  close  union  of  church  and  school.  Then  follows 
the  grammar  proper. 

1.  Analytics  of  letters, —  more  extended  and  formal  than  in  the  Eng- 
lish version  preceding. 

2.  Eight  parts  of  speech  and  their  accidence,  in  great  detail,  but  far 
less  helpful  than  in  the  English  treatise,  or  in  Cheever's  Latin  Acci- 
dence. It  goes  too  much  into  abstractions.  Under  verbs  comes  the 
famous  Lily's  De  Simplicium  verborum  primae  conjugationis  communi 
praeterito,  "-as  in  praesenti  perfectum  format  in  -avi,  etc. 

3.  The  "  concords." 

4.  Construction  of  nouns,  verbs,  pronouns,  etc.,  with  examples  from 
different  authors.  Here  the  Latin  part  is  superior  to  the  English  part 
described  above,  where  examples  are  scarce. 

5.  Figures  and  prosody. 

At  the  end  of  the  book  is  a  poem  of  twelve  lines, — "Magister  dis- 
cipulos  ad  studia  literarum  cohortans ;  also  a  "  Puer  orans  ante  lec- 
tionem"  (prayer),  a  "  Puer  orans  ante  cibum,"  a  "  Puer  orans  post  ci- 
bum," and  an  "  oratio  matutina." 

3.    A  1542  illuminated  vellum  copy  of  "Lillij  Grammatica." 

1.  Religious  exercises,  Latin  on  one  side,  English  opposite. 

2.  Henry  Eighth's  proclamation  directing  the  use  of  the  book  in 
which  he  says,  "  Emong  the  manyfolde  busines  and  most  weyghty 
affayres  appertayning  to  our  Regall  auctoritee  and  offyce  we  forgette 


272  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

not  the  tendre  babes  and  the  youth  of  our  realme  whose  good  education 
and  godly  bryngyng  up  is  a  greate  furniture  to  the  same  and  cause 
of  moche  goodnesse."  (For  full  text  of  a  similar  proclamation  see  the 
author's  article  on  the  Evolution  and  Present  Status  of  the  Beginner's 
Latin  Book,  in  Jour,  of  Ped.,  16: 191.) 

3.  A  preface  in  English,  "to  the  reader." 

4.  An  introduction  to  the  eight  parts  of  speech  in  English. 

5.  Lily's  Carmen  de  Moribus,  the  creed  in  Latin,  and  other  religious 
compositions. 

6.  An  institutio  compendiaria  totius  grammaticae. 

7.  Foreword  in  Latin  to  teachers  and  an  "  ad  lectionem "  in  Latin 
verse. 

8.  The  accidence,  similar  to  that  in  the  Lily  previously  described. 

9.  Syntax  and  prosody  in  Latin. 

These  books  are  all  of  small  compass.  They  will  serve  to  show  the 
nature  of  the  new  textbooks, —  the  effort  to  simplify  and  explain,  and 
the  mixed  character  of  the  books  (English-Latin,  etc.),  indicating  a 
transition  period.  The  contrast  between  these  books  and  the  ponderous 
volumes  of  grammar  abstractions  of  an  earlier  period,  as  described 
in  the  Appendix  to  Chapter  XII,  is  striking.  In  Milton's  "Digest  of 
Accidence  and  Grammar "  he  complains  that  grammar  as  previously 
taught  consumed  ten  years  of  one's  life. 


XVII 

NOTABLE   CONTRIBUTIONS   OF   THE   RENAISSANCE   TO   SECONDARY 
EDUCATION  —  A   GENERAL   SUMMARY 

Contrasts  in  the  period. —  As  has  already  been  indicated 
the  Renaissance  was  a  complex  educational  period.  Its  pecul- 
iar complexity  was  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  a  transition 
period.  Hence  we  find  striking  contrasts  side  by  side.  The 
old  scholastic  and  monastic  ideas  of  course  projected  them- 
selves into  succeeding  periods.  They  were  so  deeply  rooted 
and  had  been  so  wide-spread  and  popular  that  they  did  not 
easily  succumb  to  newer  ideas.  But  the  Revival  had  brought 
forward  forces  and  ideas  that  had  more  life  and  weight  and 
agreed  far  better  with  modern  pedagogical  principles.  Any 
period  presenting  such  conditions  must  show  variety  and  con- 
trasts before  settling  upon  one  type  to  be  projected  into  the 
new  future.  Amid  this  variety  what  were  the  real  contribu- 
tions with  which  we  should  credit  the  Renaissance?  What 
was  the  school-type  of  this  epoch, —  curriculum,  method,  aim? 

Old  forms  still  cling,  but  are  waning. —  Deeply  embedded  in 
the  educational  polity  of  the  period,  as  has  been  suggested,  were 
the  theory  and  practice  represented  by  curricula  and  methods 
that  the  leaders  of  the  new  times  were  lashing  and  ridiculing. 
They  were  so  prevalent  and  so  conspicuous  for  at  least  part  of 
the  period  that  they  might  almost  seem  characteristic.  But 
they  were  merely  inheritances.  They  held  over  with  schools 
which  came  from  previous  periods.  They  thus  looked  to  the 
past  and  were  not  at  all  representative  of  the  times.1 

New  forms, —  prophetic. —  Again,  using  the  best  view-points 
and  looking  as  far  into  the  future  as  these  looked  into  the  past, 
we  find  a  school  type  x  that  represented  the  underlying  life  of 

1  According  to  Luther's  estimate  the  comparative  efficiency  of  the 
new  and  old  would  be  well  expressed  by  the  ratio  20:  3,  or  perhaps  even 
40:  3.  Again  he  says  that  they  can  now  learn  in  three  years  more  than 
formerly  in  universities  and  cloisters. 

273 


274  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

the  Renaissance,  but  had  not  yet  taken  hold  of  the  general 
school  public  and  organized  itself  into  definite  forms.  This  was 
the  type  argued  by  Rabelais  and  Ratke,2  Comenius 2  and 
Luther.  The  curriculum  forming  under  the  influence  of  this 
new  pedagogy  included  Latin,  Greek,  history,  geography  and 
other  sciences,  civics,  commercial  subjects,3  and  physical  train- 
ing. The  method  had  more  of  the  concrete  and  more  regard 
for  the  nature  of  the  child.  We  shall  look  for  this  type  to 
assert  itself  in  some  future  century.  Neither  of  these  two 
types  answers  our  query. 

Da  Feltre's  school  not  the  type. —  If  we  turn  to  Da  Feltre's 
school  we  shall  still  come  short  of  our  quest,  for  it  did  not  be- 
come a  type.  Sturm's  school  comes  nearer  the  purpose.  It 
was  a  conspicuous  model  in  its  day.  Ascham  profited  by  it  in 
English  education.  Its  influence  extended  far  into  the  future. 
It  represented  the  real  legacy  of  the  Renaissance,  as  far  as 
school  forms  are  concerned. 

The  final  Renaissance  curriculum  and  method. —  If  then 
we  take  Sturm's  curriculum, —  grammar  in  the  narrow  sense, 
literature  (more  to  enforce  and  cultivate  style  than  for  its  own 
sake),  rhetoric,  logic,  and  a  mere  touch  of  mathematics, —  his 
formal  method,  in  which  memory  work,  imitation,  and  incessant 
practice  predominated  (a  revived  classical  method),  and  his 
aim,  linguistic  training  of  an  intense  type,  we  have  a  close 
approximation  to  the  final  influence  of  the  Renaissance.  And 
if  we  remember  that  many,  probably  the  majority,  of  the  schools 
still  clung  to  a  lower  ideal  that  looked  toward  the  past,  we 
shall  realize  in  a  degree  the  actual  state  of  the  schools  of  the 
day,  and  we  may,  in  a  very  general  way,  accept  Laurie's  state- 
ment 4  as  a  kind  of  summary  estimate  of  Renaissance  schools. 

2  These  two  educators  came  on  the  border  line  between  this  period 
and  the  next.     They  may,  however,  be  appropriately  mentioned  here. 

3  Commercial  subjects  had  an  interesting  experience  in  England. 
They  were  added  to  the  grammar  school  curriculum,  but  the  court  be- 
fore which  school  questions  frequently  came,  because  of  the  desire  of 
the  old  authorities  to  keep  out  teachers  not  of  their  cloth,  or  to  keep  the 
old  curriculum  pure,  decided  in  at  least  one  case  that  the  legal  cur- 
riculum was  a  classical  one.  The  terms  of  endowment  served  as  con- 
servative forces. —  De  Montmorency,  op.  cit.,  182-3. 

4  See  Chapter  XVI,  p.  262. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE     275 

Memory  was  still  the  key  to  method.  Dictation,  copying,  and 
repetition  were  still  familiar  terms. 

An  interesting  episode  at  Cambridge. —  The  precedence  and 
predominance  of  grammar  are  well  illustrated  by  a  bit  of  his- 
tory from  the  University  of  Cambridge.  The  University  stat- 
utes of  1550  substituted  mathematics  for  grammar  as  the  initial 
study  for  youths  fresh  from  school,  but  the  statutes  of  Eliza- 
beth, fifty  years  later,  returned  grammar  to  its  old  place.  Then 
elementary  rules  of  arithmetic  and  definitions,  axioms,  and  a 
few  propositions  from  Euclid's  first  book  sufficed  for  mathe- 
matics, and  the  study  of  geography,  history,  and  astronomy 
was  far  behind  the  times,  neglecting  the  newer  development  and 
clinging  to  things  that  were  ancient.5  Elizabeth  was  Ascham's 
exemplary  scholar  in  the  classics.  It  was  quite  in  keeping  with 
the  pseudo-humanism  of  her  training  to  revert  to  grammar  as 
the  great  agent  of  education.  In  schools  generally,  as  well  as 
in  the  universities,  grammar  and  grammar  methods  probably 
held  their  own.  The  university  "  arts  course  "  well  reflected 
the  Renaissance  characteristics  of  secondary  education,  for  it 
was  really  of  a  secondary  nature. 

But  there  were  some  gains,  and  some  germinal  ideas  that  had 
already  begun  to  work,  of  which  any  summary  of  the  Renais- 
sance must  take  account.  Otherwise  we  fail  to  give  the  period 
just  characterization,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  previous 
periods.     The  gains  were  in  many  directions : 

Gains  over  previous  periods. —  1.  A  more  effective 
method. —  There  was  a  more  efficient  method,  giving  more  life 
to  Latin  teaching,  which  was  the  principal  part  of  school  work. 
Instruction  was  also  organized  with  more  force  and  precision, 
as  seen  in  various  schools  described  in  text  and  appendices. 

2.  The  period  gave  to  the  school  the  things  that  formed  the 
foundation  of  the  curriculum,  in  place  of  the  shadow  of  things 
found  in  dry  epitomes  that  contained  only  the  gleanings  of 
past  centuries. 

3.  Again,  schools  were,  in  the  aggregate,  more  concerned 

5  In  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  there  was  complaint  as  to  the 
state  of  learning  in  the  Universities  where  students  were  mere  "  pueri." 
See  Mullinger. 


276  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

with  wholes  in  place  of  fragments  of  the  classics  and  with  a 
wider  range  of  reading,  than  in  previous  periods.  There  were, 
therefore,  generally  speaking,  more  substance  and  less  form 
than  there  had  been  since  Roman  times.  Latin  authors  and,  to 
a  slight  extent,  Greek  authors  again  lived  with  students  and 
gave  of  their  personality  and  vitality.  This  change  brought 
students  into  contact  with  a  wider  range  of  interests.  Even- 
tually Renaissance  education  sank  to  a  fragmentary  treatment 
of  many  authors  for  the  sake  of  form,  but  it  was  never  char- 
acterized by  the  paucity  of  interest  that  appeared  in  previous 
epochs. 

4.  New  text-books  in  various  subjects. —  The  Renaissance 
gave  new  text-books.  Latin  authors  must  be  studied  through 
books,  and  it  makes  a  great  deal  of  difference  what  form  the 
book  takes.  Previously,  when  the  book  was  only  in  the  mas- 
ter's hands,  it  mattered  little  what  its  character  was;  all 
depended  on  the  ability  and  enterprise  of  the  teacher  in  pre- 
senting its  contents.6  Now  the  printing  press  made  it  possible 
to  have  books  more  frequently  in  the  pupil's  hands,  though 
such  books,  as  we  have  already  seen,  were  still  scarce.  There 
was  a  good  deal  of  activity  in  preparing  books  for  the  schools. 
Sturm  and  Melanchthon  busied  themselves  in  this  direction. 
They  edited  the  classical  authors.  Melanchthon  even  made  a 
book  on  physics.7  From  a  general  bibliography  in  the  British 
Museum  it  appears  that  books  on  chemistry,  natural  philosophy, 
natural  history,  geometry,  geography,  history,  etc.,  some  in 
Latin,  some  in  English,  appeared  in  great  numbers  before  1700, 
beginning  in  the  fifteenth  century.  But  as  yet  only  the  old 
subjects  were  represented  generally  in  the  secondary  schools.8 
We  may  illustrate  the  advance  in  text-books  by  reference  to  the 
most  typical  subject  in  the  curriculum, —  Latin  grammar. 

Grammar  was  the  foundation  subject  in  the  spontaneous  life 
of  the  early  Renaissance.     It  was  the  central  subject  in  the 

6  As  a  matter  of  fact,  up  to  the  early  university  period  teachers  took 
the  easiest  way  of  conveying  knowledge  to  pupils, —  dictation,  copy- 
ing, memorizing. 

7  Physics  was  still  a  composite  subject,  including  astronomy,  meta- 
physical questions,  etc. 

8  The  text  book  industry  is  again  emphasized  in  another  valuable 
bibliography,  "  Repertoire  de  Ouvrages  Pedagogiques  du  XVIe  Siecle." 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE     277 

curriculum  of  the  later  Renaissance  period,  in  which  form 
gained  precedence  over  substance,  and  the  main  stress  in  school 
work  was  placed  upon  learning  the  language  rather  than  upon 
studying  to  appreciate  that  of  which  the  language  was  a  vehicle. 
When  form  is  dominant,  formal  and  abstract  methods,  with 
the  dry  discipline  of  artificial  study  and  premature  logical 
analysis,  usurp  the  place  of  developmental  discipline.  The  lat- 
ter follows  natural  growth,  takes  advantage  of  the  natural 
interests  of  the  pupil,  and  develops  new  interests  by  genetic  as 
opposed  to  formal  principles.  Grammar  often  became  such  a 
dry  and  barren  routine  of  memory  work  and  drill  that  it  actually 
tyrannized  in  the  school,  till,  out  of  the  new  enthusiasm  in  edu- 
cation and  out  of  the  restiveness  caused  by  outworn  methods 
and  material,  came  a  demand  for  modern  grammars, —  simplifi- 
cations of  the  heavy  and  technical  treatises  of  the  earlier  time. 
Especially,  as  Latin  declined  as  a  spoken  language,  it  became 
necessary  to  put  more  illustrative  material  into  text-books. 

New  grammars. —  It  is  very  interesting  to  look  over  some 
of  the  grammars  and  introductory  Latin  books  that  were  issued 
at  this  time  and  came  with  increasing  frequency  in  the  follow- 
ing centuries.  They  might  almost  be  called  Latin  primers,  so 
far  as  size  is  concerned,  but  they  are  really  older  grammars 
abbreviated  and  simplified  and  made  more  interesting.  They 
appealed  to  young  minds,  and,  as  compared  with  older  books, 
gave  a  touch  of  the  concrete.  The  emphatic  way  in  which 
these  authors  treated  the  subject  argues  the  prevalence  of  other 
views.9  According  to  Hazlitt  the  first  clear  approach  to  our 
modern  grammars  was  Robertson's  edition  of  Lily,  published  in 
1530.  This  was  all  in  Latin.  Milton  made  a  digest  of  acci- 
dence and  grammar,  remarking  that  by  the  ordinary  course  of 
procedure  ten  years  of  one's  life  were  consumed  by  grammar. 
It  should  also  be  noted  that  a  very  vigorous  movement  set  in 
at  this  time  in  England  to  teach  Latin  through  the  English,  as 
seen  by  books  of  the  period  presenting  the  "  true  method  of 
teaching  the  Latin  tongue  by  the  English."  10 

9  Occasionally  a  frontispiece  is  added.  It  tells  quite  as  much  as  to 
pedagogical  customs  as  the  book  itself.  It  represents  the  teacher  as 
dictating  and  the  pupil  copying. 

10  In  Germany  too  some  attention  _  was  given  to  the  vernacular. 
Schools  made  some  use  of  it  in  teaching  Latin. 


278  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

It  will  be  interesting  to  look  more  closely  at  a  few  of  these 
old  books.  Brief  descriptions  of  two  or  three  that  the  author 
has  had  an  opportunity  to  examine  have  been  given  in  an 
appendix  to  Chapter  XVI.11 

5.     Vernacular  and  commercial  subjects. —  The  vernacular 
and  commercial  studies  were  pushing  into  the  schools.     It  has 
just  been  shown  that  English  and  German  were  coming  to  be 
media  of  instruction  in  the  classics  in  their  respective  countries. 
The  same  was  probably  true  of  French.     But  this  is  not  the 
only  way  in  which  the  vernacular  was  claiming  its  rights  in  dif- 
ferent countries.     It  was  the  basis  of  elementary  education 
now,  showing  not  only  that  modern  languages  had  developed 
toward  the  literary  stage,  but  that  popular  education  of  a  prac- 
tical sort  was  coming  to  its  own.     As  to  commercial  subjects, 
they  affected  both  the  elementary  and  the  secondary  school. 
That  they  should  come  into  elementary  education,  or  that  ele- 
mentary education  should  become  practical  and  popular,  might 
call   for  small  comment  or  opposition,  but  that  they  should 
invade  the  precincts  of  the  old  grammar  or  Latin  school,  which 
"were  preempted  for  and  by  older  subjects,  was  a  very  different 
matter.     The  dubious  statements  of  those  who  feared  that  the 
foundation  of  things  educational  were  to  be  upset  by  the  intru- 
sion of  these  plebeian  subjects  into  old  established  curricula12 
shows  not  merely  conservatism,  but  the  aristocratic  and  even 
autocratic  nature  of  educational  opinion  of  the  day.     It  reminds 
us  of  more  recent  outcries.     The  coming  of  these  modern  sub- 
jects, however,  was  one  of  the  most  significant  signs  of  the  edu- 
cational times. 

6.  Relations  of  secondary  school  and  higher  school. — 
The  grammar  schools,  through  the  improvement  of  their  pro- 
grams and  the  vigor  of  their  work,  were  coming  up  to  the  meas- 
ure of  real  preparatory  schools,  and  thus  were  rilling  the  gap 
that  the  university  felt  when  it  established  grammar  schools  of 
its  own.  They  even  took  a  part  of  the  university  curriculum 
and  thus  awakened  the  jealousy  of  the  superior  institution. 
The  university  in  turn  tried  to  dictate  the  policy  of  the  lower 
school.     Platter  tells  us  that  the  university  authorities  requested 

11  See  Appendix  3,  last  chapter. 

12  See  Green,  Town  Life  in  the  Fifteenth  Century,  II :  12  ff. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE     279 

him  to  get  their  sanction  before  offering  his  reading  courses.13 
The  times  were  ripening  for  the  separation  of  secondary  and 
higher  education  in  some  of  their  relations. 

7.  Great  activity  in  establishing  secondary  schools. —  The 
Renaissance  was  distinguished  by  the  rapid  increase  of  second- 
ary schools.  Here  we  touch  one  of  its  most  important  charac- 
teristics. We  should  expect  just  such  results  from  the  pro- 
gressive spirit  of  the  period.  Three  influences  were  now  push- 
ing education  on,  the  Church,  the  State,14  and  the  Reformers. 
From  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  England,  the 
State  took  a  decided  hand  in  promoting  education,  and  its  influ- 
ence elsewhere  began  as  early  as  this.  The  indications  are  that 
all  children  were  assumed  to  be  taught  in  grammar  schools  or 
by  private  tutors.15  There  was  a  period  preceding  the  Refor- 
mation when  education  was  more  flourishing  than  at  a  much 
later  date.  Leach  assures  us  that  at  the  Reformation  there 
were  more  grammar  schools  in  England,  in  proportion  to  the 
population,  than  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and 
that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  population, —  larger  than  at 
the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century, —  had  access  to  the  schools.10 
Hazlitt  affirms  that  more  grammar  schools  were  established 
within  thirty  years  of  the  Reformation  than  in  three  hundred 
years  before.17  Again  Nohle  speaks  of  the  spread  of  schools 
through  all  the  towns  of  Germany.18  There  was  thus  a  wide- 
spread movement  confined  to  no  section  and  to  no  nation. 

18  See  Platter's  account  of  his  school  experiences,  Amer.  Jour,  of 
Education  5 :  79  ff. ;  24:101;  also  Monroe's  Thomas  Platter,  etc. 

14  Towns  established  schools  at  a  much  earlier  date. 

15  This  brought  educational  competition.  It  was  probably  found  in 
every  town  of  importance.  Great  effort  was  made  on  the  part  of  the 
older  grammar  schools  to  maintain  a  monopoly  of  education.  This 
was  probably  largely  due  to  religious  motives,  as  seen  by  statutes  and 
ordinances.  It  was  an  effort  to  keep  dissenters  from  intruding.  The 
old  grammar  schools  were  a  part  of  the  organization  of  the  old  estab- 
lished church.  But  we  are  bound  to  suppose  that  financial  motives  also 
had  an  influence.  School  teaching  was  not  only  a  profession,  but  a 
financial  venture. 

16  Leach,  op.  cit. 
"Hazlitt,  op.  cit. 

18  See  Report  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Educ,  1877-8,  I:  22  (Nohle,  History 
of  the  German  School  System). 

This  progress  of  secondary  schools  should  be  associated  with  the 
Reniassance  because  it  was  a  natural  outcome  of  the  Reniassance  spirit. 


28o  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  earnestness  of  our  early  colonists  in  providing  secondary 
educational  facilities  was  a  reflex  of  educational  enterprise  in 
the  old  world.  They  were  used  to  educational  advantages 
there ;  they  must  have  them  here. 

Who  attended  schools. —  We  do  not  see  the  full  significance 
of  these  facts  as  to  educational  opportunities  unless  we  note 
the  constituency  of  the  schools.  De  Montmorency,  who  has 
gone  into  a  portion  of  the  evolution  of  English  education  in 
great  detail,19  claims  that  in  England  the  schools'  chief  patrons, 
before  1406,  were  of  the  free  non-gentle  class.  He  asserts  that 
they  were  attended  by  the  children  of  the  burgage  tenants  in 
towns,  by  the  children  of  freeholders,  and  copyholders,  and,  in 
many  cases,  by  the  children  of  people  of  the  lower  class.20 
The  policy  and  character  of  the  lord  and  his  spiritual  advisers 
in  a  lay  fee,  not  the  financial  ability  of  the  people,  determined 
school-going.  It  would  seem  that  the  nobles  were  less  inclined 
to  schools  than  were  others.  They  had  other  interests. 
Schooling  was  beneath  them.  War  and  knightly  arts  were  for 
them.  All  this  is  in  sharp  contrast  with  conditions  somewhat 
later,  when  secondary  schools  gained  among  the  higher  born 
and  lost  among  the  people,  so  that  in  England  the  grammar 
schools  were  almost  preempted  by  the  higher  and  higher  middle 
classes.  This  was  due  of  course  to  the  shifting  of  economic 
and  political  conditions,  which,  now  that  the  days  of  chivalry 
were  over,  turned  the  thoughts  of  the  gentle  from  warlike  to 
civil  pursuits. 

This  wide-spread  ministry  of  secondary  education  is  exactly 

19  See  his  State  Intervention  in  Eng.  Educ,  25  ff. 

20  This  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting  characteristics  of 
the  period.  The  evidence  is  so  strong  that  it  cannot  be  doubted.  Its 
implications,  however,  may  not  extend  as  far  as  would  appear  at  first 
sight.  Secondary  schools  of  Europe  generally  have  not  been  so  clearly 
differentiated  as  our  high  schools.  The  grammar  school  was  an  ele- 
mentary school  and  secondary  school  combined,  receiving  a  boy  at  about 
nine,  or  even  at  a  lower  age,  giving  him  some  preliminary  schooling, 
and  then  introducing  him  to  genuine  secondary  school  work.  How 
far  the  average  pupil  went  in  the  grammar  school,  whether  beyond 
the  elementary  section,  it  is  evidently  impossible  to  tell,  as  it  was  not 
an  age  of  statistics.  But  even  tho  attendance  at  the  secondary  part  of 
secondary  schools  may  not  have  been  as  great  as  the  statements  might 
seem  to  imply,  the  growth  of  schools  and  the  extent  of  school  at- 
tendance would  be  hardly  less  remarkable. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE     281 

in  accord  with  the  informing  and  buoyant  spirit  of  the  times, 
and  makes  the  Renaissance  period  still  more  conspicuous  and 
more  strikingly  prophetic. 

New  sponsors. —  It  is  especially  interesting,  in  connection 
with  this  multiplication  of  schools,  to  note  the  new  agencies  at 
work.  Schools  were  no  longer  the  offspring  merely  of  the 
Church.  Other  forces,  political  and  commercial,  had  brought 
new  patrons  and  sponsors.21  Certainly  the  enterprise  in  found- 
ing schools  in  England  owed  much  to  industrial  ambition.  The 
very  names  of  the  schools  are  witnesses  to  this.22  Similar 
forces  were  at  work  elsewhere,  as  is  evident  from  what  has 
been  said  in  previous  chapters.23 

8.  Service  of  the  Renaissance  to  independent  thinking 
and  investigation. —  The  Renaissance  was  a  vestibule  to  a 
period  of  individual  thought  and  investigation.  It  prepared  the 
way  by  awakening  and  stimulating  fresh  thought.  It  also 
itself  furnished  examples  of  independent  thought  and  was 
characterized  by  vigorous  investigation  into  things  of  the  past 
and  by  the  development  of  the  new  science  of  philology.  It 
was,  however,  too  much  absorbed  in  a  study  of  the  past  to 
warrant  any  considerable  claim  to  independence  and  an  investi- 
gative spirit.  It  rested  on  authority,  but  took  a  new  attitude 
toward  it ;  it  was  content  only  with  primary,  not  with  second- 
ary, authority.  It  was  thus  an  essential  agent  in  the  develop- 
ment of  new  mental  activity  and  the  establishment  of  new  men- 
tal attitudes,  and  it  made  some  notable  beginnings  in  these 
directions. 

All  these  things  affected  the  secondary  school,  but  they  af- 
fected its  spirit  more  than  its  form.  As  already  indicated,  the 
curriculum  was  the  same  as  before  in  name,  but  not  in  sub- 

21  It  is  interesting  to  note  what  seem  to  be  the  leading  motives  in  the 
spread  of  schools.  Hazlitt  says  that,  not  only  in  this  epoch,  but  to  the 
present  time,  the  force  that  has  promoted  education  has  come  from 
either  political  or  commercial  motives. 

22  Note  Merchant  Tailors'  School  and  many  others. 

23  While  considering  these  estimates  of  the  extent  of  education  we 
must  also  remember  that  Luther  complained  that  the  great  mass  of 
youth  were  wholly  destitute  of  education.  He  may,  however,  have  been 
speaking  of  earlier  days  before  the  new  movement,  in  which  he  him- 
self was  a  leading  spirit,  was  fairly  under  way.  Again  pupils  might  go 
to  school  without  getting  much,  if  we  are  to  credit  some  accounts. 


282  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL" 

stance,  and  often  not  in  method.  There  was  a  new  enthusiasm 
in  the  old  studies,  and  they  were  more  humanely  and  peda- 
gogically  applied  to  education, —  at  least  in  certain  cases ;  the 
trend  was  that  way.  A  feeling  was  therefore  growing  for  some 
sides  of  secondary  school  life  neglected  before.  But  in  spite 
of  wholesome  modifications  education  was  still  very  bare  and 
formal.  The  intellectual  life  of  the  adolescent  was  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  as  obscure  as  ever.  The  secondary  curriculum 
came  to  be  associated  as  a  matter  of  course  with  the  limited 
interests  that  the  Renaissance  magnified.24  The  Renaissance 
leaders  and  their  successors  so  rung  the  changes  here,  so  naively 
assumed  and  so  persuasively  persuaded  men  that  they  had  the 
true  fundamentals  of  education,  that  belief  in  it  became  an 
instinct.  Pupils  of  one  generation  became  the  teachers  of  the 
next  and  handed  the  tradition  on. 

The  school  form  which  became  stereotyped  may  be  outlined 
as  follows: 

I.  Aim. —  Humanistic,  I,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word;  2, 
later,  in  the  more  formal  sense, —  to  make  the  pupil  master  of 
a  pure  classical  style.  But  character  as  an  aim  in  education 
was  coming  to  notice.25  As  shown  on  page  274,  the  later 
interpretation  of  the  aim  represented  the  final  influence  of  the 
Renaissance. 

II.  Curriculum. —  1.  Latin  (occasionally  Greek).  Wider 
reading,  though  still  limited.  A  strong  set  toward  the  formal 
discipline  idea  and  toward  grammar  and  rhetoric  as  the  ideal 
subjects.  Rhetoric  was  merely  a  part  of  Latin.  2.  Logic. 
3.  Elementary  work  in  number. 

III.  Method :  —  Intense  discipline  of  "  memory,"  and  prac- 
tice to  command  style  (relieved  by  elements  of  the  natural 
method  inevitable  at  a  time  when  Latin  was  the  language  of 
the  school-room).     We  find  a  strong  set  toward  "  formal  disci- 

24  At  a  little  later  date  Pestalozzi's  intuition  rightly  estimated  the 
curriculum  when  he  said,  "  We  imagined  in  our  boyish  days  that  we 
could  prepare  ourselves  by  the  superficial  school  knowledge  of  the  life 
of  Greek  and  Roman  citizens  for  the  restrictel  life  of  citizens  in  a 
Swiss  Canton." 

25  See  Report  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Educ,  1899.  pp.  47-8;  Elyot's  Gov- 
ernour ;  Laurie,  op.  cit.,  38-42 ;  also  the  outline  of  Da  Feltre's  school  in 
Chap.  XV. 


CONTRIBUTIONS  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE     283 

pline."  Sternness,  strictness,  stiffness  were  prevailing  charac- 
teristics of  general  management,  though  emphasis  was  laid  on 
the  opposite  characteristics  in  certain  cases.  Opinions  as  to 
discipline  were  re-forming. 

The  rank  and  file  of  schoolmasters  were  probably  mere 
givers  of  tasks  and  hearers  of  lessons, —  men  of  narrow 
attainments. 

Sturm  was  the  master  moulder  of  this  school  form.  The 
main  elements  of  his  system,  Latin  and  Latin  method,  were 
prominent,  not  to  say  predominant  in  succeeding  school  pro- 
grams for  several  centuries.20  The  chief  changes  made  in  his 
system  in  following  centuries  seem  to  have  been,  that  the  wor- 
ship of  disciplinary  Latin  teaching  was  substituted  for  the 
worship  of  the  stylistic,  and  that  the  study  of  mathematics  was 
added  as  a  disciplinary  agency.  Down  to  our  time  men  have 
worshipped  the  great  schoolmaster  of  the  sixteenth  century 
rather  more  than  the  far  greater  master  of  the  first.  They 
have  thus  emphasized  form  rather  than  content.27  Till  within 
the  last  fifty  years  secondary  education  has  been  limited  in 
large  measure  to  a  superficial  knowledge  of  ancient  civiliza- 
tion (for  that  is  all  the  average  student  gained),  a  small  grasp 
of  its  language,  an  elementary  study  of  mathematics,  and  a  still 
slighter  study,  if  it  should  be  called  study,  of  modern  literature 
and  history. 

Persistence  of  Renaissance  ideals. —  Such  results  follow 
from  a  rather  passive  acceptance  of  the  influence,  and  acqui- 
escence in  the  ideas,  of  Sturm  and  the  Sturmians.  The 
Renaissance  and  a  few  succeeding  years  did  the  thinking  for 
secondary  education,  so  that  the  schools,  till  very  recent  times, 
have  lived  largely  on  inheritances.  That  people  as  a  rule  do 
comparatively  little  thinking  and  get  most  of  their  judgments 
ready-made,  as  Titchener  claims,  would  seem  to  find  support 
here.  It  has  been  hard  therefore  to  modify  views  as  to  the 
proper  studies,  and  particularly  the  proper  kind  of  study,  for 
adolescents.     What    was    in    exact    accord    with    conditions, 

20  See  an  article  on  the  Evolution  of  Latin  Method  in  the  Journal  of 
Ped.,  16:  191. 

27  There  have  been  spasmodic  revivals  of  the  humanistic  spirit,  but 
the  conclusion  here  stated  seems  to  represent  best  the  settled  policy  of 
the  schools. 


284  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

political,  social,  and  intellectual,  at  first,  has  been  growing  far- 
ther and  farther  away  from  them,  so  far  as  matter  is  con- 
cerned. Method  did  not  even  then  accord  with  intellectual 
demands,  because  it  lacked  one  of  the  essential  elements  of 
method.  Later  it  did  not  accord  even  with  political  and  social 
demands. 

To  be  more  specific,  autocratic  conditions  favor  authority 
in  education, —  the  learning  of  authoritative  forms  and 
formulae,  the  mastery  (sometimes  only  verbal)  of  others' 
thinking  in  place  of  independent  thinking,  the  following  of 
traditional  lines  in  place  of  initiative,  the  static  in  place  of  the 
dynamic.  Rising  democracy  required  the  second  alternatives 
rather  than  the  first,  and  it  has  suffered  in  genuine  develop- 
ment because  matter  and  methods  that  accorded  with  social 
conditions  of  the  late  Middle  Ages  and  the  beginnings  of  mod- 
ern centuries  were  projected  into  centuries  that  required  some- 
thing more  accordant  with  their  spirit.  The  times  changed, 
but  curriculum  and  method,  which  should  respond  rather 
readily  to  new  views  and  policies,  were  fixed  in  hard  and  fast 
lines  and  were  essentially  unresponsive.  The  oxygen  of  better 
pedagogy  from  time  to  time  gave  an  appearance  of  life,  but 
there  followed  relapses  into  the  coldness  and  dullness  of  the 
formal  again.  The  momentum  gained  from  this  long  assur- 
ance kept  the  secondary  school  narrow  for  ages.  The 
Renaissance  was  in  an  important  sense  the  source  of  this 
momentum.  When  all  is  said  we  must  remember  that  it  trans- 
mitted to  America  ideals  that  gave  pupils,  after  seven  or  eight 
years  in  the  grammar  school,  Latin,  a  little  English,  and  no 
arithmetic.  It  is  here  that  American  secondary  education 
begins. 


XVIII 

SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY    MOVEMENTS    IN 
SECONDARY   EDUCATION 

What  the  Renaissance  fixed  in  secondary  school  schemes. 

—  From  what  has  been  said  it  is  evident  that  the  Renaissance 
formulated  a  very  definite  curriculum  and  method.  These 
were  so  circumscribed  and  the  field  covered  was  so  small  that 
the  general  plan  could  be  kept  well  in  hand.  Men  knew  just 
where  they  were  and  were  never  at  loss  to  choose  their  course. 
The  subjects  we  have  noted  were  fixed  strongly  in  the  second- 
ary school, —  so  strongly  that  nothing  could  shake  them. 
Method,  too,  established  itself.  As  indicated  in  the  last  chap- 
ter, however,  one  change  was  to  come  when  Latin  ceased  to  be 
the  language  of  school  and  class-room.  We  have  seen  that 
even  in  the  Renaissance  a  movement  to  use  the  vernacular  was 
initiated.  When  the  change  came,  the  beginner's  Latin  book 
with  its  exercises,  Latin-vernacular  and  vernacular-Latin,  was 
on  the  way.  The  way  led  through  simplified  grammars,1  sup- 
plementary reading  books,  and  groups  of  exercises  that  were 
an  amelioration  of  the  older  grammar  work,  but  still  a  severe 
tax  on  the  memory  and  youthful  spirit  often  incommensurate 
with  the  advantages  gained.  Occasionally  a  man  of  larger 
views  and  finer  feelings  for  educational  values  tried  to  reform 
Latin  teaching,  but  this  was  a  minor  episode,  not  a  typical  one.2 
The  classical  method. —  Method  finally  issued  in  a  long 
series  of  exercises,  bare  and  formal,  to  give  mastery  of  Latin 
vocabulary,  forms,  and  syntax,  while  Latin  authors  came  to  be 
used  as  means  of  grammatical  drill  quite  as  much  as  for  any 

1  We  found  that  the  more  progressive  and  vigorous  educational  spirit 
of  the  Renaissance  began  this  evolution  by  simplifying  grammars  and 
adding  more  interest  and  spontaneity  to  the  beginner's  work. 

2  See  an  article  in  the  Journal  of  Pedagogy,  i6:i9iff.,  giving  the 
evolution  of  Latin  method  and  the  Beginner's  Latin  Book. 

285 


286  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

culture  value.  Less  was  read  in  four  years  than  should  be 
read  in  a  single  year  with  any  worthy  method  or  ideal.  This 
was  the  classical  method.  It  has  been  modified  and  relieved 
of  some  of  its  crudeness,  and  attempts  have  been  made  at 
reform,  but  it  remains  to-day  as  the  foundation  and  more  than 
the  foundation  of  Latin  method.  Its  main  outlines  appear  in 
the  Renaissance  and  more  clearly  in  the  near  years  afterwards. 
We  begin  the  period  following  the  Renaissance  then  with  a 
clearly  cut  curriculum  and  method  well  anchored  in  the  schools. 

But  men  are  never  satisfied  with  steadfast  gaze  in  any  one 
direction  nor  with  the  acceptance  of  ancient  authority,  which 
were  in  effect  the  general  characteristics  of  the  Renaissance. 
However  inviting  the  prospect,  as  the  evolution  proceeds  men 
finally  grow  restless.  They  need  new  scenes  or  new  occupa- 
tions, and  they  need  new  thought ;  —  in  this  case  they  thought 
nearer  home. 

A  new  curriculum  and  method. —  Ever  since  the  Saracens 
stirred  the  intellect  of  Europe,  and  the  rising  university  move- 
ment sharpened  wits,  and  the  Renaissance  opened  a  new 
(albeit  an  old)  world,  a  new  curriculum  and  method  could  be 
seen  in  shadowy  outlines.  The  movements  just  referred  to 
had  disclosed  wonderful  achievements  of  the  past  that  took 
hold  of  men's  imaginations  and  stirred  to  great  things.  They 
had  set  men  thinking  and  working  enthusiastically  in  fresh 
ways,  though  along  paths  trodden  before.  They  had  there- 
fore been  a  stimulus  to  new  ways  and  means  in  education. 
With  this  momentum,  to  be  increased  by  new  forces  that  were 
soon  to  appear,  the  new  curriculum  and  the  new  method  were 
bound  to  come  and  claim  the  right  to  a  place  in  the  schools. 

The  quest  of  the  real. —  As  noted  in  the  last  chapters  a 
Renaissance  logically  issues  in  a  return  to  realities, —  realities 
of  all  sorts.  We  found,  however,  that  the  Renaissance  we 
have  studied  betook  itself  most  naturally  to  realities  in  a  limited 
field ;  these  were  in  fact  the  only  realities  that  existed.  The 
Renaissance  itself  gave  little,  and  crystallized  and  systematized 
less,  that  was  new  and  seemingly  worth  serious  study.  But 
other  realities  were  to  appear  and  were  to  invite  acquaintance 
and  investigation.  There  was  to  be  nothing  partial  and  lim- 
ited.    It  is  well  to  note,  however,  that  vigorous  thinking  in 


SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES     287 

narrow  lines  makes  larger  thinking  possible.  The  Renaissance, 
by  re-thinking  great  thoughts,  and  by  re-following  great 
processes  with  new  vigor  and  enthusiasm,  was  stimulating  the 
intellect  for  new  conquests,  if  opportunity  offered.  There 
were  influences  at  work  that  would  make  the  opportunity. 

Signs  of  new  times. —  After  the  ancient  turmoil  the  world 
rested  from  intense  attention  to  its  causes  and  effects,  and 
directed  its  attention  to  other  things.  A  new  phase  of  devel- 
opment resulted.  Discoveries,  inventions,  travels,  the  opening 
up  of  new  trade-routes,  the  growth  and  broadening  of  indus- 
trial life,  commercial  competition,  the  spread  of  ideas  of  cul- 
ture, the  growth  in  standards  of  living  creating  new  demands 
to  be  supplied  —  all  this  caused  the  re-grouping  and  specializa- 
tion of  experiences.  Each  new  and  specialized  body  of  experi- 
ences crystallized  modes  of  procedure,  formulae,  laws,  prin- 
ciples that  must  be  possessed  in  a  vital  way  by  the  newer 
generation,  if  the  occupation  or  interest  in  question  was  to  hold 
its  own.  At  the  same  time,  as  individual  responsibility  and 
initiative  were  developing,  individuals  within  the  new  industrial 
or  professional  or  cultural  groups  must  become  experts  to  win 
their  way  by  competition.  General  training  and  the  old  agency 
of  apprenticeship  would  not  long  be  sufficient.  A  culture  idea 
and  the  idea  of  special  training  for  special  purposes  must 
attach  themselves  to  these  new  interests.  Particularly  the  need 
of  technical  training,  as  a  basis  for  success  in  the  new  technical 
pursuits,  began  to  be  keenly  felt.  It  is  easy  to  see,  when  all  the 
circumstances  are  taken  into  account,  that  the  key  to  the  new 
ideas  was  mastery  of  environment. 

The  way  to  individual  initiative. —  The  natural  order  of 
evolution  in  such  matters  is  this :  —  First  comes  the  tribal  idea, 
under  various  forms  and  modifications,  by  which  the  com- 
munity gives  the  boy  the  exact  knowledge  developed  by  experi- 
ence, either  through  group  teaching  and  rote-method,  or 
(later)  through  apprenticeship  (which  is  only  the  tribal  idea 
modified).  2.  Then  appears  the  individual  idea,  which  is  cal- 
culated to  make  possible  larger  advance,  because  a  group  of 
more  or  less  independent  individuals,  each  having  power  of 
initiative,  tries  more  paths  to  progress  than  are  open  to  mass 
movements.     This  training  has  several  stages  from  more  or 


288  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

less  empirical  work  to  that  which  gives  insight  into  the  inner 
meaning  of  processes,  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  scien- 
tific principles  and  laws,  and  power  to  formulate  hypotheses 
and  theories.  We  have  now,  through  various  lines  of  develop- 
ment, reached  securely  the  edge  of  the  latter  form  of  educa- 
tion.3 Even  the  Romans  had  much  of  the  tribal  idea  in  their 
education,  and  they  stood  like  a  wall  between  Greece  and 
Western  Europe, —  between  the  best  of  the  ancient  world  and 
the  ideals  of  the  modern  world. 

New  studies  and  books. —  There  is  no  better  indication  of 
the  new  order  of  things  than  the  fact  that  geography  and  his- 
tory were  becoming  sciences,  that  groups  of  nature-facts  were 
crystallizing  into  sciences,  and  that  exact  science  was  growing 
and  coming  nearer  adolescent  comprehension.  Facts  must  first 
be  classified,  before  they  become  objects  of  thought  and  study 
in  school.  A  select  body  of  men  had  been  engaged  in  isolated 
studies  in  these  great  subjects  —  in  gathering  and  classifying 
facts.  But  such  things  are  not  for  the  few,  except  in  the 
initial  stages  of  development.  From  sentiment  and  from  prac- 
tical notions,  as  well  as  from  a  desire  to  preserve  and  promote 
acquisition,  sciences,  of  whatever  kind,  naturally  become  sim- 
plified so  that  young  minds  may  be  inducted  into  the  elements 
of  great  subjects.  Thus  text-books  on  new  grammar  and 
rhetoric  and  on  physics,  algebra,  and  history  were  being  writ- 
ten.4    Other  books  were  to  follow. 

Leaders. —  Aside  from  these  book-makers  and  students  of 
great  subjects  there  were,  scattered  through  the  years,  leaders 
of  another  kind,  who  touched  education  in  a  general  or  special 
way,  and  who  proposed,  and  to  some  extent  put  into  practical 
use,  new  school  programs  and  methods.  They  were  men 
whose  minds  were  in  close  touch  with  the  times,  rather  than 
absorbed  by  admiration  of  the  past.  We  have  already  noticed 
Rabelais,  Ratke,  Comenius,  and  Montaigne.     Others  continued 

3  This  was  begun  by  the  Sophists  in  Greece  in  a  limited  way,  but 
was  interrupted. 

It  is  but  fair  to  say,  however,  that  new  ideals  and  forms  needed 
to  be  settled  before  the  idea  started  by  the  Sophists  could  be  safely 
carried  out. 

4  See  Chapter  XVII  and  Appendix  to  Chapter  XVI,  and  compare 
with  the  epitome-text-books  of  Chapter  XII. 


SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES     289 

their  vigorous  and  virile  thinking.  Bacon,  Descartes,  Milton, 
Locke,  Leibnitz  and  Fenelon,  to  mention  only  a  few  of  the 
great  company,  were  opening  up  new  subjects,  or  new  modes 
of  approaching  subjects,  and  were  suggesting  new  curricula, 
while  "  teaching  congregations  "  of  the  reform  type,  through 
the  solidarity  of  organization,  were  spreading  new  ideas  in  a 
practical  way.  These  leaders  in  educational  thought  were  con- 
fined to  no  country,  so  that  new  things  in  education  were  mak- 
ing themselves  felt  everywhere.  The  city  school,  which  had 
taken  root  particularly  on  the  Continent,  offered  special  oppor- 
tunity for  progress  and  organization  in  the  new  lines.  In 
England  more  depended  on  public  sentiment  as  expressed 
through  private  enterprise. 

A  new  curriculum. —  Thus  through  various  agencies  came 
results  of  a  very  practical  nature.  For  example,  Leibnitz  pro- 
posed a  curriculum  in  which  logic,  mathematics,  physics,  geog- 
raphy, and  language  were  the  most  important  studies ;  but, 
what  is  more  significant,  he  argued  that  the  place  of  any  study 
in  the  curriculum  depended  upon  relations  to  society  and  must 
be  regulated  by  needs  judged  from  this  view-point.  At  about 
the  same  time  Milton  was  formulating  this  curriculum:  — 
religious  instruction,  classics,  mathematics,  geography,  natural 
philosophy,  architecture,  engineering,  navigation,  anatomy,  and 
medicine, —  all  to  be  completed  by  the  time  the  boy  was  sixteen 
years  old.  The  academies  of  the  Dissenters  were  also  putting 
new  and  independent  curricula  into  operation.  So  far  as  sec- 
ondary studies  are  concerned,  we  might  summarize  the  views 
of  these  men  and  bodies  of  men,  and  of  others  of  the  period,  in 
some  such  curriculum  as  this :  natural  science,  physics,  mathe- 
matics, history,  and  the  vernacular,  in  addition  to  the  old  trio. 

The  Ritteracademie. —  But  there  was  still  another  force 
to  be  reckoned  with.  Under  French  genius,  chivalry,  which 
had  been  a  concrete  and  therefore  taking  way  of  expressing 
old  Teutonic  virtues  combined  with  Christian  graces,  had, 
under  current  influences,  flowered  in  a  new  school,  or,  at  any 
rate,  in  new  school  ideas.  The  "  seven  knightly  arts "  took 
precedence  of  the  older  seven  arts,  thus  giving  prominence  to 
the  physical  side  of  education.  The  old  Latin  curriculum  was 
still  tolerated,  but  in  the  background,  while  in  front,  com- 


290  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

manding  the  chief  attention,  were  mathematics  and  physics 
with  their  applications,  modern  languages,  geography,  the  new 
political  science,  political  history,  jurisprudence,  statistics, 
heraldry,  and  genealogy.  Such  a  curriculum  was  calculated 
to  awaken  greater  enthusiasm  and  spontaneity  than  the  old 
one.  Just  before  and  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War  French 
influence  was  strong  with  the  nobility  of  Germany,  and  the 
new  school  ideas  followed  this  influence  and  so  had  wider 
application.     Here  we  have  the  so-called  Ritteracademie. 

Slow  progress. —  All  these  influences  had  a  cumulative  effect 
and  gave  rise  to  the  movement  that  we  call  the  "  Enlighten- 
ment." With  the  innovations  in  method  emphasized  by  Bacon, 
who  brought  men's  attention  anew  and  more  fully  to  objective, 
observational,  and  experimental  work,  and  with  the  innova- 
tions in  curriculum  inspired  from  so  many  sources,  a  new 
school  form  must  come.  A  new  education  was  growing. 
"  For  a  hundred  years  it  grew  beside  its  wise  mother,"  like 
Hesiod's  typical  youth  of  the  Silver  Age.  No  doubt  it  would 
have  had  a  shorter  infancy,  had  not  a  new  turmoil  broken  out. 
Schools  have  always  been  at  the  mercy  of  politics.  The  new 
turmoil  was  primarily  religious,  but  practically  political.5  It 
so  far  reduced  Central  Europe,  the  most  promising  field  for 
educational  advance  at  this  time,  that  a  substantial  portion  of 
it  reverted  almost  to  its  natural  state,  so  great  was  the  destruc- 
tion in  all  lines  and  so  nearly  did  the  human  element  come  to 
extinction.  Education  could  not  flourish  at  such  a  time.0  But 
the  advance  in  educational  opinion  was  not  changed  in  direc- 
tion, however  much  it  may  have  been  retarded  in  speed. 
Remarkable  as  it  may  seem,  when  we  consider  the  deplorable 
condition  of  Germany,  even  there  men  found  time  to  intro- 
duce some  progressive  features  into  school  polity. 

The  new  secondary  school  and  its  founders. —  The  hundred 
years  finally  brought  the  full  crystallization  of  the  new  ideas 
in  the  new  school.     At  this  time  Francke  (1663-1727),  gath- 
ering up  the  best  in  education  and  inspired  by  the  true  teacher- 
's The  Thirty  Years'  War,  (1618-1648). 

6  Little  more  than  a  third  of  the  population  of  Germany  survived. 
Cities  were  destroyed;  property  was  ruined;  the  foundations  of  indus- 
try were  uprooted. 


SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES     291 

spirit,  founded  a  school  whose  curriculum  gave  effective  recog- 
nition to  mathematics,  history,  geography,  and  science.  It 
was  Francke  who  really  inspired  this  new  school  form  that  was 
calculated  for  the  people  and  better  suited  to  their  needs  than 
older  forms.  It  was  Semler  and  Hecker  who  gave  it  a  fixed 
position  with  an  appropriate  name.  Thus  came  the  Real- 
schule,  toward  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  offered 
as  its  curriculum  religion,  ethics,  German,  French,  Latin,  his- 
tory, geography,  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  mechanics, 
architecture,  writing,  and  drawing.  It  was  not  only  the  cur- 
riculum that  was  modern ;  the  method  advocated  by  the  school 
was  equally  modern.  Here  objective  and  inductive  work 
again  found  a  home.  This  school  was  the  first  educational 
mile-stone  since  the  Renaissance.  The  studies  that  it  empha- 
sized came  into  the  curriculum  to  stay.  Within  a  hundred 
years  (which  is  a  short  time  educationally,  at  this  point  in  the 
evolution  of  secondary  schools),  they  were  given  a  small  place 
in  strictly  classical  schools.  Thus  modern  languages,  history, 
geography,  science,  drawing,  and,  especially,  mathematics,  the 
third  great  "  disciplinary  "  subject,  secured  a  slender  foothold 
in  secondary  education  generally.7 

Growth  of  the  new  school  idea  in  different  countries. — 
The  influence  of  the  movement  is  perhaps  seen  better  in  Ger- 
many than  elsewhere.  Educational  plans  took  form  there  early 
and  became  more  definitely  organized  there  than  elsewhere,  as 
has  already  been  indicated.  But  such  influences  are  a  part  of 
world  movements  and  suffer  no  limits.  That  the  new  ideas  as 
to  curriculum  and  method  were  felt  in  France  is  evident  from 
what  has  already  been  said.  An  examination  of  the  growing 
curricula  of  the  Lycees  shows  that  the  new  studies  were  making 
a  place  for  themselves.  Even  in  England  eighteenth  century 
schools  (which  are  held  up  to  ridicule  otherwise),  showed  simi- 
lar changes.  They  might  be  aping  popular  policies  elsewhere, 
but  they  at  least  indicated  how  generally  the  new  education 
was  attracting  attention.  Here  is  an  interesting  bit  of  adver- 
tising which  will  show  more  concretely  how  things  were  going 
in  England :  — 

7  There  was  still  strong  religious  influence  in  the  schools.  De  Mont- 
morency, 182-3. 


292  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

"  At  Knaton,  near  Thirsk  in  Yorkshire,  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Addison 
and  proper  assistants,  young  gentlemen  are  properly  boarded,  de- 
cently clothed,  and  regularly  instructed  in  the  English,  Latin  and 
Greek  languages,  writing  in  all  hands,  arithmetic  and  geometry 
with  their  uses  in  all  kinds  of  measuring,  trigonometry,  plane 
and  spherical,  applied  to  navigation,  astronomy,  etc.,  algebra  and 
book-keeping  after  the  Italian  method.  They  are  furnished  with 
books,  paper  and  other  necessaries  at  io£  per  annum"  (i.e.,  the 
total  cost  of  board,  instruction,  etc.,  came  to  this  amount,  as  in- 
dicated by  various  other  advertisements).8 

From  a  different  source  we  get  other  interesting  evidence  of 
the  change  that  had  come  over  education,  evidence  that  serves 
well  here  and  will  be  useful  a  little  further  on :  —  "  So  few 
boys  were  then  in  my  station,"  says  Southey,  looking  back  at 
his  boyhood,  "  and  indeed  in  the  station  of  life  just  above  mine, 
who  received  a  classical  education  in  those  days  (1750),  com- 
pared with  what  is  the  case  now"  (1823).0  In  our  own 
country  the  early  academy  programs  show  how  the  reforms 
were  coming  into  education  here. 

All  of  this  evidence  goes  to  show  that  the  new  forces  were 
working  thoroughly  and  that  the  resulting  movement  had  char- 
acteristics of  universality  and  permanence. 

8  Public  Advertiser,  1755,  quoted  by  Sydney  in  his  England  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  II,  89. 

9  Quoted  by  De  Montmorency. 


XIX 

SECONDARY   EDUCATION    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY —      ^# 

GENERAL    HISTORY 

Delay  for  a  second  hundred  years  —  A  rival  movement. — 
Considering  the  impetus  the  new  ideas  had  received  and  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  they  were  carried  out,  one  is  hardly 
prepared  to  find  that  they  represented  prophecies  rather  than 
any  extended  application  at  the  time.  The  movement  had 
small  development  for  a  second  hundred  years ;  the  age  pro- 
duced another  movement  that  kept  it  in  abeyance.  This  rival 
movement  was  at  the  bottom  political,  or  rather  social  and 
political.  The  period  of  conflict  already  mentioned,  which  • 
exhausted  men's  resources  and  energy  and  reduced  the 
"  people  "  so  much  in  numbers,  was  naturally  followed  by  a 
period  of  absolutism,  good  for  some  purposes  doubtless,  but 
bad  for  general  training  in  new  ideas  and  enterprises.  Then 
came  just  as  natural  a  reaction,  the  rise  of  new  democratic 
sentiments  and  the  creation  of  new  democratic  forms,  some- 
times by  revolt  and  revolution,  sometimes  more  peacefully. 
The  individual  again  became  dominant.  A  new  inspiration 
roused  the  best  in  him  and  made  him  ambitious  for  the  best. 
He  had  a  natural  right  to  the  fullest  and  freest  development 
attainable.  The  "  perfection  of  the  individual "  became  the 
ideal.  Where  should  he  find  models  for  this  development, 
models  of  the  highest  culture  yet  reached?  Or  better,  how 
should  he  reach  the  best  culture?  He  was  helped  toward  an 
answer  by  another  circumstance.  A  thrill  of  national  senti- 
ment passed  through  Western  Europe,  particularly  through 
Germany.  This  spirit  of  nationality  directed  and  dictated 
national  culture,  which  now  became  an  intense  object  of 
thought.  Where  should  models  be  found  for  this  rising  spirit 
to  work  upon  and  work  through?  How  should  culture  be 
attained  ? 

293 


* 


294  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Different  answers  might  have  been  given  to  these  questions 
that  the  new  sentiments  were  suggesting.  The  leaders  took 
the  most  obvious  one,  the  easiest  one,  the  one  nearest  at  hand. 
It  was  a  natural  answer.  Perhaps  it  was  the  best  one  under 
the  circumstances,  though  one  is  permitted  to  entertain  grave 
doubts  here.  They  said,  in  effect,  the  models  of  highest  excel- 
lence are  in  the  past.  "So  far  right  and  good.  They  said  also 
that  the  surest  way  of  reaching  their  end  lay  in  the  study  of 
past  civilization,  in  winning  its  culture,  and,  through  its  inspira- 
tion, making  a  culture  of  their  own.  So  far  also  good.  The 
doubt  comes  as  to  the  way  in  which  this  was  carried  out  and 
particularly  as  to  the  narrow  way  in  which  it  was  applied  to 
the  schools. 

Thus  then  the  two  impulses,  individual  and  national,  met  in 
a  new  enthusiasm  for  classical  study,  and  especially  in  the 
study  of  what  they  believed  were  the  classics  par  excellence, 
the  works  of  the  Greeks.  It  was,  however,  Greek  thinking 
and  feeling  that  they  wanted  to  master,  not  merely  language 
and  style,  as  in  the  case  of  Renaissance  Latin. 

The  New  Humanism. —  So  has  been  explained  the  rise  of 
the  New  Humanism,  as  the  movement  that  we  have  been  fol- 
lowing has  been  significantly  named.  Undoubtedly  the  influ- 
ences referred  to  played  a  part,  perhaps  a  large  part,  in  the 
phenomenon,  but  we  must  look  further  and  deeper  for  other 
influences,  if  we  are  to  have  an  adequate  explanation.  In  fact, 
it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  we  have  thus  far  found  more 
than  the  secondary  causes.  To  make  the  point  clear,  we  must 
revert  to  the  last  period.  The  Renaissance  brought  Greek 
again  into  prominence.  From  its  long  occultation  it  naturallv 
made  headway  slowly.  It  became  a  university  interest  only  to 
a  limited  extent.  It  probably  had  a  larger  place  in  the  second- 
ary school,  but  did  not  come  within  range  of  Latin.  So  small 
was  its  development,  at  the  time,  that  we  hardly  name  it  in  the 
typical  curriculum  handed  on  by  the  Renaissance.  But  decade 
by  decade  men  learned  more  of  Greek  and  went  deeper  into 
its  meaning  and  spirit.  Its  constituency  widened.  Greek  was 
in  a  very  fair  way  to  make  itself  a  universal  enthusiasm. 
Greek  would  surely  have  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the 
curriculum  through  this  natural  growth  from  the  Renaissance 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  295 

alone.     The  double  ideal  of  the  New  Humanism  merely  gave 
color  and  direction  to  the  new  study. 

Greek  becomes  a  prominent  study  of  the  curriculum. — 
The  Renaissance  fixed  Latin  in  the  modern  curriculum.  Greek 
now  became  a  fixture;  it  was  the  new  and  entrancing  subject, 
in  fact  it  was  the  study  of  the  secondary  school.  This  does 
not  mean  that  more  time  was  given  to  Greek  than  to  Latin. 
Latin  had  monopolized  so  much  attention  in  the  Renaissance 
period  and  before  that  this  would  hardly  be  possible.  When 
the  new  curriculum  took  on  a  settled  form  we  find  Greek 
prominent  quantitatively,  but  not  first.  The  Prussian  cur- 
riculum of  1859,  which  may  fairly  represent  the  culmination, 
i.  e.,  the  real  strength,  of  the  movement,  gives  the  ratio  be- 
tween Greek  and  Latin  as  1 :2.x  Latin  was  the  substantial, 
practical,  disciplinary  subject.  Soon  after  the  enthusiasm  for 
Greek  began  a  movement  was  on  foot  to  maintain  the  prestige 
of  Latin.  Greek  brought  in  the  ideal,  the  esthetic,  and  it 
was  always  treated  more  humanistically  than  Latin.  Thus  it 
brought  some  influences  much  needed  in  any  national  culture. 
Latin  however  had  nearly  2,000  years  the  start  of  Greek  in 
the  direct  secondary  tradition.  We  shall  see  how  this  differ- 
ence and  the  qualitative  differences  between  the  two  languages 
affected  the  curriculum  in  later  years.  The  immediate  effect  of 
the  classical  revival  is  seen  by  such  facts  as  have  already  been 
noted  and  particularly  by  the  following  points,  readily  gath- 
ered from  a  study  of  several  curricula  of  the  period : 

Illustrations  of  the  dominant  program  of  studies. —  I.  In 
an  1816  curriculum  in  Germany  the  classics  occupied  more  than 
half  the  time,  Latin,  Greek  and  mathematics  %i  of  the  time, 
while  geography  and  history  were  given  a  beggarly  yilf  and 
science  still  less. 

2.  In  an  1830  school  plan  the  classics  occupied  %  of  the 
time,  and  Latin,  Greek  and  mathematics  all  of  it  in  a  way,  as 
logic,  philosophy,  the  vernacular,  and  history  were  taught  inci- 
dentally in  connection  with  other  subjects.  This  was  in  South- 
ern Germany,  where  the  classical  influence  was  strongest. 

3.  A  North  Germany  1837  curriculum  gave  more  than  half 

iln  1816  one  curriculum,  however,  gives  the  ratio  as  7:8,  which  may 
be  taken  as'  the  limit  before  things  settled. 


296  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

the  time  to  Latin  and  Greek,  about  %  to  Latin,  Greek  and 
mathematics,  y8  to  German  and  French,  %2  to  history  and 
geography,  %7  to  science,  and  %0  to  drawing. 

4.  An  1859  curriculum  in  Prussia  gave  %  the  time  to  Latin 
and  Greek,  about  %  to  Latin,  Greek  and  mathematics,  about 
y10  to  history  and  geography,  %o  to  science,  and  %4  to 
drawing. 

Germany,  as  elsewhere  stated,  is  a  good  type-country  for 
studying  these  modern  movements  in  secondary  education. 
Till  the  last  decade  or  two  she  has  been  the  object  of  much 
study  and  imitation  in  educational  matters.  The  German  idea, 
therefore,  may  perhaps  be  taken  to  express  the  general  opinion 
as  to  the  ideal  of  the  period,  that  intense  occupation  with 
Greco-Roman  literature  and  familiarity  with  the  philosophy 
of  classical  antiquity  gives  the  best  general  preparation  for 
every  higher  profession. 

But  the  movement  we  are  tracing  appeared  elsewhere.  The 
return  to  old  favorites  in  the  curriculum,  and  their  reinforce- 
ment by  the  addition  of  Greek,  was  not  a  narrow  but  a  wide- 
spread policy.  It  was  not  a  simple  return,  but  a  return  with 
new  feelings  and  ideas.  In  France  the  effects  are  seen  in 
the  "  arts  course  "  of  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
which  was  saturated  with  classics  and  gave  only  perfunctory 
attention  to  other  matters.  It  is  seen  also  in  the  statute  of 
1809  that  restored  the  classics  to  their  old  position,  making 
them  the  center  of  the  curriculum,  where  the  Revolution  had 
established  science.  The  curriculum  of  the  Lyceum  of  a  little 
later  date  also  shows  a  preponderance  of  classics.  Southey's 
statement 2  as  to  the  popularity  of  the  classics  in  this  period, 
compared  with  their  position  about  1750,  is  significant  for 
England.  Our  early  high  school  (barring  the  Boston  English 
High  School,  which  had  a  genuine  classical  school  by  its  side), 
came  into  this  classical  inheritance. 

We  surely  find  here  a  classical  revival.  The  day  of  real 
subjects  had  not  yet  come. 

New  demands  for  new  studies  —  National  ambitions  and 
ideals. —  But  a  new  movement  was  already  under  way,  or 
rather  an  old  movement  was  taking  on  new  life  and  making 

2  See  page  292,  Chapter  XVIII. 


•NINETEENTH  CENTURY  297 

itself  felt  in  a  new  and  stronger  way,  backed  by  stronger  influ- 
ences and  arguments.  International  competition  was  now 
becoming  keen  in  a  new  way.  Nations  were  eager  for  higher 
industrial  development  that  commanded  the  resources  of  the 
world.  The  old  idea  of  conquest,  which  utilized  the  best 
resources  of  the  nation  and  gave  an  outlet  for  all  surplus 
activity  and  more,  had  passed.  The  age  of  incursions  and  the 
unsettling  of  populations  had  also  passed.  The  era  of  con- 
flicts, rising  from  international  and  religious  jealousies  or  from 
factional  spirit  within  the  nation  itself,  was  fast  passing.  The 
time  had  come  for  more  intensive  internal  development.  This 
now  naturally  occupied  attention,  and  for  three  reasons:  1. 
Activities  must  be  utilized.  As  the  demands  of  the  old  national 
occupations  had  decreased,  new  outlets  for  the  released  energy 
must  be  found.  2.  The  only  sure  means  of  progress  was  the 
development  of  native  resources.  3.  Times  of  peace  acceler- 
ated the  growth  of  population,  and  advancing  ideals  of  life 
brought  a  greater  number  and  greater  complexity  of  needs  that 
must  be  met.  All  this  required  industrial  development  of  a 
higher  sort  at  home.  This  was  naturally  supplemented  by  the 
idea  of  industrial  development  abroad  in  "  spheres  of  influ- 
ence," protected  by  international  agreement  rather  than  arms. 
This  would  insure  industrial  outlets  and  facilitate  trade. 
National  progress  and  commercial  progress  were  becoming 
identified.  The  schools  then  must  provide  new  training  calcu- 
lated to  make  graduates  capable  of  understanding,  utilizing, 
and  increasing  the  resources  of  their  country.  National 
thought,  urged  by  these  considerations,  but  primarily  and  more 
deeply  by  larger  feelings,  growing  consciously  and  uncon- 
sciously out  of  the  philosophy  of  education,  was  throwing  a 
new  doubt  over  ancient  school  programs.  Not  only  did  mas- 
tery of  environment  seem  more  than  ever  to  be  the  key  to 
national  development,  but  mastery  of  oneself,  leading  to  a 
fuller  development  of  power,  seemed  to  be  the  key  to  educa- 
tional theory. 

After  nursing  at  the  breast  of  ancient  culture  for  a  long 
infancy,  nations  were  thus  becoming  conscious  of  their  per- 
sonality, and  at  first  impulsive,  and  then  more  and  more 
coordinated,  movements  were  made  to  develop  this  personality 


298  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

in  ways  best  suited  to  its  rising  needs.  National  aims  and 
purposes  were  adding  their  weight  to  other  influences  that 
have  been  noted  before. 

But  particularly  was  the  readjustment  forced  and  guided  by 
growth  in  industrial  technique  and  industrial  ideals  and  stand- 
ards. National  aims  turned  in  this  direction.  The  older  cen- 
turies had  made  as  much  as  they  could  of  industry  with  the 
simple  industrial  training  of  the  times.  But  now  investigation 
resulting  in  discoveries  and  inventions  was  opening  up  new 
industrial  opportunities  on  every  hand,  and  industrial  processes 
were  becoming  more  complex  and  technical.  Industry  was 
becoming  scientific.  It  could  not  long  thrive  on  empirical 
methods  depending  upon  apprenticeship  and  some  happy  knack 
of  doing  things.  It  required  scientific  and  technical  education 
through  various  curricula  adapted  to  different  ends  by  which 
leaders  might  be  developed  and  the  rank  and  file  of  workers 
made  efficient  and  effective  followers  and  supporters.  Thus  it 
touched  what  is,  after  all,  the  real  and  final  motive  force,  the 
individual.  When  a  method,  process,  or  movement  appeals  to 
individual  power  and  initiative,  it  brings  to  the  group,  whether 
smaller  or  larger, —  family,  community,  school,  corporation,  or 
state, —  the  surest  means  of  progress.  But  to  do  this  the  indi- 
vidual must  be  socialized.  This  imposed  a  new  duty  of  the 
new  times  and  gave  a  weighty  task  to  the  school,  which,  under 
the  pressure  from  other  sources,  it  long  left  unaccomplished. 
That  the  new  times  made  an  intensive  appeal  to  the  individual 
is  evident.  They  hardly  left  him  an  option.  He  must  respond 
or  fall  out  of  the  race. 

But  the  individual  met  the  emergency ;  he  did  not  have  to 
be  forced.  Faith  in  the  value  and  power  of  education  grew. 
It  showed  wonderful  vitality,  especially  in  democratic  coun- 
tries. More  and  more  to  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  particularly  in  the  opening  years  of  the  twentieth  century, 
the  idea  that  every  worthy  occupation  requires  special  educa- 
tion was  growing,  and  the  evolution  of  new  forms  of  educa- 
tion superior  to  the  old  was  making  headway,  till  the  new 
curricula  took  rank  in  disciplinary  and  culture  value  with  the 
old.  The  old  classical  curriculum,  instead  of  preempting  the 
field  of  education,  became  one  of  many  parallel  curricula  by 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  299 

which  men  were  lifting  themselves  from  mediocrity  to 
superiority. 

But  by  this  quick  look  ahead  we  have  outrun  the  process 
and  treated  in  a  rather  summary  way  the  significant  changes 
that  were  going  on.  In  reality  results  came  very  slowly.  The 
science  of  pedagogy,  taking  on  new  life  from  the  new  mental 
activity  of  the  times  and  stimulated  by  the  conditions  that  have 
been  described,  worked  long  at  the  enterprise.  Pedagogy  is 
really  only  an  educational  interpretation  of  the  forces  at  work 
in  a  community.  Its  function  is  to  study  education  in  relation 
to  the  varied  needs  and  interests  of  different  social  units,  to 
formulate  principles  for  guidance,  and  to  suggest  forms  for  the 
embodiment  of  principles.  From  the  point  of  view  then  of 
this  old-new  science  we  are  to  follow  a  little  more  deliberately 
the  changes  that  have  been  referred  to. 

New  spirit  of  pedagogy. —  The  new  spirit  of  pedagogy  stim- 
ulated men  to  a  new  study  of  old  things  and  a  study  of  new 
things,  to  the  better  application  of  old  subjects  for  school  pur- 
poses and  community  progress  and  to  the  formation  and  appli- 
cation of  new  studies.  It  must,  to  be  logical,  turn  its  attention 
to  the  examination  of  the  various  studies  in  their  different 
relations  and  to  a  comparative  estimate  of  their  real  substance 
and  worth.  In  other  words,  pedagogy  had  to  add  to  the  study 
of  "  studies  "  as  entities  and  practicalities,  the  study  of  them 
as  embodiments  of  educational  material  related  to  educational 
ends.  Subjects  of  the  curriculum  were  thus  subjected  to  a 
new  appraisal,  and  a  new  system  of  values  was  worked  out. 
Hence  various  emphases  were  brought  to  the  front  according 
to  the  points  of  view  of  students  of  educational  problems. 
This  served  a  double  purpose.  In  the  first  place  it  led  to  prac- 
tical agreement  as  to  the  intrinsic  value  of  new  studies  from 
more  than  one  point  of  view.  Difference  of  opinion  related 
mainly  to  comparative  estimates  of  different  subjects  and  the 
direction  in  which  they  were  supposed  to  affect  pupils.  In 
the  second  place,  because  equally  strong  arguments  might  be 
made  for  each  view,  agreements  and  differences  alike  suggested 
that  each  subject  is  the  educational  equivalent  of  every  other. 
As  a  result  the  most  substantial  pedagogy  of  to-day,  looking 
into  each  study  with  an  honest  purpose  to  see  its  merits,  finds 


3oo  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

first  that  it  is  part  of  a  unity,  not  a  separate  entity;  second, 
that  its  value  depends  on  the  method  of  its  application  in  the 
schoolroom.  A  true  psychological  method  that  brings  out 
properly  the  correlations  of  subjects  will  make  them  all  of 
equal  value, —  not  of  the  same  value,  but  of  equal  value.  The 
vain  wrangle  over  comparative  merits  should  lose  itself  in  a 
new  rivalry  in  which  each  teacher  will  give  an  equal  place  of 
honor  to  all  and  at  the  same  time  strive  to  make  the  best  of 
his  own. 

A  reconciliation  of  cultural  and  practical. —  This  new  peda- 
gogy, partly  caused,  partly  causing,  has  been  revolutionizing 
ideas  as  to  curriculum  and  method.  Logically  carried  out  it 
reconciles  the  cultural  and  practical, —  shows  how  that  is  most 
truly  practical  which  is  most  truly  cultural,  that  the  practical  is 
cultural,  if  rightly  treated  in  education,  that  real  culture  con- 
sists in  so  mastering  the  spirit  and  meaning  of  human  interests 
and  comprehending  their  relations  that  one  can  apply  himself 
and  them  most  efficiently  in  business,  profession,  or  state. 
Culture  does  not  lie  in  the  object  or  study,  but  in  the  manner 
of  dealing  with  it.  The  epoch  we  are  considering  began  a 
movement  for  culturizing  all  studies  and  all  professions,3  even 
those  that  we  have  regarded  as  merely  practical.  In  a  way  this 
sums  up  all  movements.  It  is  the  result  of  reflection  on  edu- 
cation in  a  new  way,  the  result  of  making  a  study  of  education 

itself. 

The  growth  of  a  new  curriculum  and  of  new  educational 
apparatus. —  This  study  made  it  evident  that  only  a  new  or 
remodeled  curriculum  would  satisfy  all  the  demands,  demands 
of  theory  and  practice,  of  industry  and  science,  of  individual 
and  nation,  of  mental  needs  and  physical  needs.  Development 
of  the  curriculum  must  be  in  the  direction  of  mastery  of  nature 
and  mastery  of  self.  The  means  for  this  development  were 
forming  in  this  period.  They  represented  another  force  work- 
ing for  the  consummation  of  the  new  ideas,  and  itself  the 
embodiment  of  these  ideas.     The  process  described  in  earlier 

3  At  first  a  study  or  profession  is  crude,  empirical,  a  bare  aggregation 
of  facts,  half-facts,  and  assumptions.  As  it  grows  it  gets  more  exact, 
becomes  conscious  of  ties  and  relationships,  develops  the  social  spirit, 
attains  a  dignity  that  history  gives,  assumes  a  fineness  of  sentiment,—  m 
a  word  becomes  humanized  and  culturized. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  301 

pages  of  the  last  chapter, —  the  modification  of  old  studies  and 
the  development  of  new  studies, —  was  advancing.  The  great 
subjects  of  science,  mathematics,  sociology,  history,  were 
growing.  New  facts  in  old  and  new  subjects  were  accumulat- 
ing and  becoming  better  and  better  organized  and  related. 
They  were  also  becoming  more  finely  adapted  to  educational 
ends,  both  for  information  and  training.  This  was  accom- 
plished through  simplifications  and  grading,  and  especially 
through  text-books  that  were  intended  to  facilitate  the  appli- 
cation of  this  alluring  body  of  science  to  students  of  different 
ages.  Latin  had  long  had  its  apparatus  for  applying  itself  to 
schools  and  this  was  growing  better  and  better  with  each  gen- 
eration. Other  subjects,  both  science  and  art,  history  and 
mathematics,  were  discovering,  inventing,  and  adapting 
apparatus  calculated  to  make  them  better  and  more  acceptable 
agents  in  school  programs. 

The  Newer  Humanism. —  A  newer  humanism  thus  came  to 
view  and  brought  with  it  new  "  humanities "  in  which  the 
vernacular  became  the  central  force  in  the  school,  the  great 
medium  of  culture  and  "  discipline."  With  it  went  physical 
training,  which  became  fundamental,  history  and  geography, 
science  and  its  applications,  mathematics  and  their  applica- 
tions, manual  training  in  a  broad  sense,  and  foreign  lan- 
guages, among  which  modern  languages  were  growing  and 
ancient  languages  declining.  This  represented  the  type  cur- 
riculum, though  it  was  not  all  actualized  at  the  time  in  exact 
proportions,  a  result  that  has  not  yet  been  accomplished. 

Illustrations  in  various  countries. —  The  movement  was  il- 
lustrated by  the  final  establishment,  systematization,  and  exten- 
sion of  the  real  programs  in  Germany,  which  emphasized  the 
new  studies  and  made  them  the  center  of  the  curriculum;  by 
the  curricula  of  the  old  gymnasia  (city  schools),  which  showed 
the  influence  of  the  new  ideas  in  classics  reduced  (and  at  the 
same  time  broadened  and  given  a  new  purpose),  and  in  science 
increased  and  accorded  a  definite  place;  by  the  wonderful 
changes  that  took  place  in  old  schools  like  St.  Paul's,  which 
made  provision  for  several  parallel  curricula  and  devoted  itself 
more  especially  *to  preparation  for  technical  and  commercial 
pursuits,  while  offering  a  typical  classical  curriculum  to  those 


3o2  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

who  desired  it ; 4  by  the  curricula  of  many  other  grammar 
schools,  old  and  new,  in  England,  as  well  as  by  the  modern  sec- 
ondary curricula  that  budded  from  the  popular  schools ;  by  the 
revision  of  the  French  Lycees  that  gave  free  play  to  modern 
studies  and  applied  modern  methods;  by  the  substantial  cur- 
ricula of  the  French  higher  primary  schools  also  that  supplied 
popular  secondary  instruction ;  again  by  Austrian  secondary 
schools  which  took  the  lead  in  modernizing  themselves ;  and  by 
provisions  for  various  technical  and  special  schools  in  the  direc- 
tion of  commerce  and  the  arts,  in  all  the  countries  named. 

The  High  School  and  its  differentiations. —  Finally  the 
movement  was  illustrated,  and  more  fully  illustrated,  by  the 
inauguration  and  development  of  the  most  unique  and  prom- 
ising secondary  school  that  had  yet  appeared,  our  own  High 
School,  that  gave  equal  facilities  for  old  and  new  and  made 
possible  many  different  curricula  applicable  to  many  condi- 
tions and  ends.5  More  particularly  was  it  illustrated  by  the 
growth  of  differentiated  high  schools  brought  into  existence  by 
the  new  influences  in  order  to  prepare  the  youth  of  the  nation 
for  the  new  industrial  times, —  the  English  high  school,  the 
commercial  high  school,  the  manual  training  high  school,  and 
finally    the    agricultural    high    school.8    The    demand    for    a 

4  Compare  this  with  the  simple  and  exclusive  aim  of  its  founder. 
See  page  266. 

5  There  are  three  things  to  be  noted  here  in  connection  with  our 
American  high  schools :  —  1.  The  new  studies  are  prominent ;  2,  within 
the  same  school  several  curricula  are  offered ;  3,  there  are  various  types 
of  secondary  schools  representing  different  central  ideas  and  adapted 
to  different  circumstances  and  communities;  4,  cultural  courses  are 
fundamental  in  all  the  schools,  which  is  only  another  way  of  saying 
that  all  professions  and  occupations  are  becoming  culturized.  The 
same  points  may  be  noted  in  other  school  systems,  but  for  the  most 
part  on  a  smaller  scale.  With  these  changes  the  new  studies  have 
gained  fairer  conditions  for  development  and  application.  There  are 
thus  differentiated  curricula  within  the  same  high  school  and  differen- 
tiated high  schools.  Both  policies  are  now  working  in  high  school 
education.    Another   chapter  will   discuss   the   relative   merits  of   the 

two. 

0  It  would  not  be  consistent  with  the  general  plan  of  this  chapter  to 
go  more  fully  into  the  history  of  the  high  school.  That  is  reserved 
for  a  succeeding  chapter.  The  detailed  development  of  secondary  edu- 
cation in  foreign  countries  must  form  the  subject  of  a  separate  volume 
the  purpose  of  which  will  be  to  trace  the  growth  of  secondary  school 
systems  in  different  countries  and  to  show  their  present  status. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  303 

broader  and  more  technical  training  for  the  more  common 
vocations,  in  place  of  the  empirical  work  that  had  prevailed, 
brought  in  also  vocational  studies  of  other  types  that  pointed 
to  other  kinds  of  vocational  schools.  But  this  latter  movement 
looked  to  the  future  and  cannot  be  said  to  be  characteristic  of 
the  period  under  consideration. 

Higher  education  to  supplement  secondary  education. — 
These  high  schools  were  finishing  schools  on  the  one  hand ; 
on  the  other  they  were  introductory  to  a  more  scientific  study 
of  the  principles  and  technique  of  industrial  and  technical  pur- 
suits, as  well  as  to  a  fuller  and  more  effective  study  of  old 
objects  of  interest.  For  these  differentiated  high  schools  new 
forms  of  higher  education  arose  to  extend  and  supplement 
them, —  the  technical  college  and  kindred  higher  schools. 
Business  itself,  and  particularly  the  trades,  were  soon  to  organ- 
ize for  cooperation  with  vocational  education,  and  thus  to  serve 
as  an  industrial  university.  With  a  broadening  of  the  second- 
ary school  there  thus  came  a  broadening  of  the  scope  and  a 
multiplying  of  the  ministries  of  higher  education.  An  age  of 
great  expansion  in  college  training  was  at  hand.  The  tendency 
to  disparage  such  training  as  a  preparation  for  business  life 
was  passing. 

New  studies. —  The  studies  that  during  the  period  styled 
the  "  Enlightenment "  began  to  be  distinct  forces  in  the  cur- 
riculum, as  opposed  to  the  mere  attachments  that  the  best 
mediaeval  education  had  made  them,  now  secured  definite 
recognition  and  even  assumed  a  predominant  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum. They  so  planted  themselves  in  public  thought  and 
so  justified  themselves  in  pedagogical  thought,  that  one  can 
conceive  of  no  change  that  would  overwhelm  them,  as  did  the 
"  New  Humanism."  And  yet  they  are  even  now  in  a  com- 
paratively crude  state,  both  as  to  selection  and  organization  of 
material  adapted  to  secondary  education,  and,  in  a  degree,  as 
to  method  of  teaching. 

Differentiation  and  special  curricula. —  Among  the  phases 
of  growth  that  have  just  been  referred  to  in  relation  to  the 
adoption  of  new  studies  and  new  curricula  none  is  more  inter- 
esting than  that  which  has  to  do  with  differentiation  and  spe- 
cialization in  courses  and  curricula.    It  was  due  to  two  forces, 


304  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

first  to  the  demand  for  special  preparation  for  special  lines  of 
work,  on  the  basis  of  a  fundamental  general  culture  common 
to  all  interests  and  necessary  for  the  consummation  of  this 
special  training;  second,  to  the  study  of  special  psychology, — 
particularly  the  psychology  of  adolescence.  Differentiation  at 
a  certain  stage  is  essential,  from  a  consideration  of  both  inter- 
nal and  external  conditions  of  education,  if  the  best  is  to  be 
done  for  the  human  and  material  interests  involved. 

Growth  of  educational  terminology  —  Program  of  studies 
—  Curriculum. —  In  this  development  in  the  secondary  school 
old  studies  grew,  some  studies  branched,  some  new  studies 
joined  the  group.  Altogether  there  was  a  wonderful  develop- 
ment on  the  study  side  of  the  secondary  school.  One  is  im- 
pressed with  the  wealth  of  choice  and  opportunity.  Teachers 
found  it  no  easy  task  to  pick  a  safe  way.  In  the  periods  de- 
scribed in  Chapters  XII  and  XIII  the  program  of  studies 7 
was  simple,  clearly  defined,  fixed.     Program  and  curriculum 

7  As  we  have  reached  a  point  where  a  differentiated  terminology  is 
necessary  the  following  definitions  of  Dr.  Johnston,  of  the  University 
of  Illinois,  are  significant.  The  terms  referred  to  will  be  used  in  the 
following  pages  in  substantial  accord  with  these  definitions. 

"High  School  Subject"  denotes  any  distinguishable  field  of  knowl- 
edge where  subject-matter  of  instruction  makes  it  practicable  and  de- 
sirable that  one  or  more  courses  or  half-courses  in  it  be  offered  in  the 
high  school  programme  of  studies. 

"  Course  of  Study "  means  the  quantity,  kind,  and  organization  of 
subject  matter  to  be  covered  by  a  pupil  in  any  high-school  subject  within 
a  definite  period  of  time  and  for  which  a  credit  unit  or  a  fraction  of 
a  credit  unit  toward  graduation  is  granted.  "  Second  year  Latin "  is 
a  "  course  of  study." 

"Credit  Unit"  represents  a  year's  study  in  any  high-school  subject 
constituting  approximately  a  quarter  of  a  full  year's  work  of  a  high- 
school  pupil.  With  any  four-year  high-school  curriculum  as  a  basis 
a  school-year  of  from  36  to  40  weeks  is  assumed,  and  it  is  further  as- 
sumed that  a  school-year's  work  in  any  subject  will  approximate  120 
sixty-minute  periods,  and  that  any  course  of  study  will  be  pursued  for 
four  or  five  periods  per  week. 

"Programme  of  Studies"  refers  to  all  the  high-school  subjects  of- 
fered in  a  given  school  without  reference  to  any  principle  of  organiza- 
tion of  these  into  curricula. 

"  Curriculum  "  refers  to  any  systematic  and  schematic  arrangement 
of  courses  of  study  extending  through  a  specified  number  of  years 
and  leading  to  a  certificate  or  diploma  that  may  be  planned  for  any 
clearly  differentiated  group  of  high-school  pupils.  A  four-year  cur- 
riculum should  represent  not  more  than  16  (and  not  less  than  15) 
units  of  work. 

"Schedule  of  Classes"  is  the  daily  and  weekly  tabular  arrangement 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  305 

were  identical.  There  was  but  one  curriculum.  In  the  follow- 
ing period  study  conditions  were  in  general  the  same,  though 
the  program  was  growing,  and  richer  and  more  stimulating 
material  was  offered.  In  the  epoch  now  under  discussion, 
however,  the  program  became  so  large  and  complex  that  sev- 
eral curricula  were  evolved,  now  in  the  same  school,  now  in 
separate  schools.  These  curricula  served  as  paths  through  the 
tangled  growth  of  the  program  of  studies.  They  were  as  yet 
imperfectly  laid  out.  They  sometimes  formed  a  barrier  rather 
than  a  help  to  choice,  partly  because  studies  were  not  well 
grouped,  partly  because  curricula  were  isolated.  There  was 
thus  an  enticing  opportunity  to  improve  the  organization  of 
secondary  studies,  to  unify  divergent  school  interests,  and  to 
correlate  the  curricula  that  represented  these  interests. 

But  there  are  two  phases  of  secondary  school  life  that  have 
not  yet  been  noticed.  During  the  period  they  were  growing 
equally  with  other  phases.  They  are  destined  to  become  inti- 
mate parts  of  any  curriculum  and  to  require  quite  as  much 
attention  as  parts  that  are  more  technically  included  in  it. 

1.  School  social  life. —  Great  freedom  was  allowed  in  school 
life,  compared  with  the  restriction  and  repression  of  other 
days.  Coincidently  there  was  a  decline  in  home  nurture.  As 
a  result  the  social  side  of  school  life  had  a  marked  develop- 
ment, particularly  in  this  country.  The  high  school  pupil  is 
preeminently  a  social  being.  A  new  growth  of  the  social 
instinct,  and  a  consequent  growth  of  intimate  group  interests 
in  great  variety,  now  smaller  as  in  chum  life,  now  larger  as  in 
societies  and  clubs,  are  characteristic  of  adolescence.  They 
have  a  perfectly  natural  development  at  the  high  school  age, 
and  are  to  be  definitely  provided  for  in  the  curriculum.  Guid- 
ance and  direction  are  urgently  needed.     To  be  really  effective, 

of  classes  showing  time  and  place  of  meeting  and  the  instructor  in 
charge  of  the  course. 

"Department"  in  high-school  work  refers  to  that  grouping  of  high 
school  subjects  which  indicates  the  administrative  policy  in  the  assign- 
ment of  subjects  of  instruction  to  teachers.  It  may  be  applied  to  any 
feasible  administrative  unit  in  the  distribution  of  instructional  work  to 
teachers  which  is  based  on  educational  principles,  the  assumption  being 
that  there  are  very  desirable  possible  groupings  and  very  undesirable 
possible  groupings ;  e.g.,  Department  of  Science,  Department  of  Eng- 
lish, Department  of  Vocational  Guidance. 


3o6  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

however,  they  must  be  of  the  adolescent,  not  of  the  adult  type, 
i.  e.,  must  be  informed  with  sympathy  with  the  adolescent. 
This  type  of  guidance  was  not  forthcoming  in  the  period  under 
consideration.  Adolescent  life  was  warped  by  the  intrusion  of 
certain  artificialities,  by  school  and  parental  indifference,  and 
otherwise. 

Club  life. —  The  club  life  of  the  adolescent  gave  more  con- 
cern than  some  other  forms  of  activity.  It  is  important  only 
because  it  is  one  of  the  modes  in  which  the  social  instinct 
expresses  itself.  Association  would  be  a  better  term  to  use, 
because  it  suggests  a  broader  view  of  this  side  of  the  adolescent 
and  a  simpler  and  more  natural  solution  of  the  related  prob- 
lems. One  form  of  club  life  was  more  conspicuous,  though 
not  more  important,  than  others,  and  awakened  more  anxiety, 
chiefly  because  the  whole  matter  was  neglected.  In  their 
eagerness  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  social  nature  high  school 
pupils  adopted  the  idea  of  the  university  fraternity.  Un- 
ordered, unorganized,  and,  in  general,  unsupervised,  the  idea 
had  a  wild  growth,  till  it  was  seen  that  untutored  adolescents 
were  becoming  overmastered  by  an  instrument  that  had  proved 
not  without  danger  for  older  students.  It  had  been  adopted, 
but  not  adapted.  With  an  inherent  carelessness  and  reluctance 
to  analyze,  the  secondary  school  had  borrowed  instead  of 
inventing  something  of  its  own, —  a  dangerous  process. 
School  authorities  thus  found  a  serious  problem  confronting 
them.  It  was  met  in  different  communities  in  different  ways, 
now  by  supervision,  now  by  repression.  Neither  way  is  final, 
the  first  because  it  does  not  yet  fully  attack  the  problem,  which 
is  one  requiring  a  careful  study  of  adolescent  interests  and 
adaptations  to  them  in  an  educational  spirit;  the  second,  be- 
cause the  adolescent  is  naturally  gregarious  and  a  lover  of  mys- 
tery. Repression  that  does  not  re-fill  with  something  more 
adequate  is  incomplete,  not  to  say  vicious.  A  vacuum  is 
abhorrent  to  human,  as  to  physical,  nature.  The  solving  of  the 
problem  thus  went  to  the  twentieth  century  high  school. 

2.  Play. —  During  the  last  century  it  came  to  be  recog- 
nized that  play  involves  mental  training, —  that  it  performs  an 
important  part  in  promoting  mental  development  and  in  pro- 
ducing mental  alertness,  that  it  may  be  as  truly  educative  as 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  307 

any  phase  of  school  life.  England  was  the  great  play  country 
of  Europe.  She  had  long  had  her  play  organized  and  had 
given  solicitous  attention  to  its  development  as  a  part  of  her 
national  educational  creed.  The  English  people  alone  of  the 
great  European  nations  did  this.  Other  nations  had,  and 
still  have,  little  inclination  in  this  direction.  We  must  thus 
look  beyond  Europe  for  the  most  marked  development  of  play 
activities  and  play  education  in  connection  with  the  public 
schools.  Here  in  the  United  States  secondary  education  had 
the  largest  growth,  during  the  period  under  review,  and  prac- 
tically became  universal, —  conditions  precisely  adapted  to  the 
free  exercise  of  the  play  instinct.  Play  results  however  were 
as  unorganized  as  in  the  case  of  social  activities.  There  was 
much  of  the  primitive  in  them.  Virgin  soil  is  always  con- 
ducive to  rank  growth.  Conditions  were  modified  by  certain 
reformations,  discussions,  regulations,  and  supervision.  But 
there  was  comparatively  little  scientific  study  in  the  case; 
it  was  of  an  empirical  sort.  Still,  more  careful  and  more 
sympathetic  attention  was  given  to  play  than  to  the  social  side 
of  school  life,  and  more  system  was  secured.  Results  were 
therefore  more  satisfactory.  A  real  attempt  was  made  to  min- 
ister to  adolescent  needs.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the 
social  problem  is  more  difficult  and  intricate  and  that  it  is 
harder  to  meet  because  of  its  secretiveness.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  social  problem,  a  fuller  solution  of  the  play  problem  was 
left  to  the  twentieth  century. 

Secondary  education  for  both  sexes. —  One  further  point 
should  be  noted  in  giving  the  general  history  of  the  period. 
With  the  popularizing  of  secondary  education  it  was  to  be 
expected  that  secondary  schools  would  eventually  be  open  to 
both  sexes.  But,  because  of  the  momentum  of  long  custom 
and  a  predisposition  to  be  skeptical  as  to  the  education  of 
women,  the  idea  had  to  wait  long  for  fulfilment.  The  nations 
of  Europe  granted  the  new  privilege  to  woman  slowly.  Even 
to-day  England  provides  little  public  secondary  education  for 
girls.8     Our  own  country,  almost  from  the  beginning  of  public 

8  England  added  some  elements  of  secondary  education,  for  boys  and 
girls  alike,  in  connection  with  the  free  popular  schools.  This  addition 
was  a  budding  of  popular  education,  but  it  was  repressed  by  the  cold- 


3o8  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

secondary  education,  opened  its  secondary  schools  to  both 
sexes  alike. 

But  winning  a  privilege  is  often  inconsiderate  of  meanings 
and  relations.  It  is  largely  objective.  New  educational 
movements  have  their  aftermath  of  problems.  Only  the  prin- 
ciples that  support  the  movements  are  stable.  Educational 
machinery  for  applying  the  principles,  like  all  machinery,  needs 
adjustment  and  further  invention  to  keep  it  equal  to  condi- 
tions. This  movement  for  the  higher  education  of  girls  was 
no  exception  to  the  rule. 

Some  of  the  problems  that  secondary  education  for  girls 
brought  are  general,  some  grow  out  of  coeducational  second- 
ary education,  and  are  applicable  particularly  to  the  United 
States  where  this  policy  early  established  itself.  The  solution 
of  these  problems  is  not  an  academic  matter,  nor  one  of  ex- 
ternal thinking.  The  question  of  the  higher  education  of 
woman  is  at  base  psychologic  and  civic, —  broadly  sociological. 
It  has  been  made  economic  and  narrowly  social.  Its  main 
proposition  needs  no  further  arguments, —  it  has  become 
axiomatic.  But  the  needed  adjustments  of  the  new  policy 
require  patient  gathering  of  facts,  a  thorough  study  of  the 
sexes,  physiologically  and  psychologically,  a  re-studying  of 
sociology,  and,  perhaps,  a  reorganization  of  home  economics.9 
The  present  century  has  the  problem  fairly  before  it. 

Present  influence  of  the  secondary  school. —  It  is  evident 
from  what  has  been  said  that  the  secondary  school  in  this 
epoch  became  a  far  larger  factor  in  individual  and  national 
development  than  formerly.  In  standard  it  was  equal  to  the 
old  college  and  beyond  it.  In  ministry  it  aimed  at  universality. 
This  broadening  of  aims  and  spirit  from  within,  in  response 
to  new  conditions,  was  accompanied  by  a  modification  of  influ- 
ences from  without  and  a  gradual  change  in  the  relations  of 
secondary  and  higher  education. 

Preceding  chapters  have  shown  in  detail  how  the  secondary 
school   became   bound   to   the   university   as   its   preparatory 

ness  of  a  deep-seated  prejudice  against  free  secondary  education  for 
all  the  people. 

"Some  of  the  main  points  in  the  history  of  the  movement  for  the 
higher  education  of  woman,  and  brief  reference  to  the  problems  en- 
tailed, will  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  309 

school,  subject  to  its  direction.  The  establishment  of  prepara- 
tory departments  in  college  and  university  was  only  a  minor 
episode  in  this  history.  It  was  an  emergency  measure,  and  as 
such  only  temporary. 

Relations  of  secondary  school  and  college  modified. — 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  preparatory  department  was 
definitely  excluded  from  the  university.  This  meant  for  the 
university  an  advance  in  the  "  arts  course,"  10  so  that  it  could 
be  placed  on  a  par  with  other  "  courses."  10,  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, affect  the  fundamental  relations  of  secondary  school  and 
university.  It  simply  gave  a  partial  opportunity  for  broaden- 
ing these  relations. 

In  the  broadening  process  that  went  on  in  secondary  and 
higher  schools  the  narrow  and  formal  requirements  and  rela- 
tions were  modified  by  the  reciprocal  influence  of  the  two,  so 
that  conditions  for  entering  the  university  became  broader  and 
freer xl  than  formerly  and  had  more  regard  for  the  genius  of 
the  secondary  school.  This  came  about  in  the  midst  of  much 
debate.  Discussions  and  conferences,  committee  work  and 
reports,  agreements  and  concessions  form  one  of  the  most 
interesting  episodes  in  secondary  school  history.  With  all  its 
interesting  details  it  would  furnish  material  for  a  volume.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  in  these  modifications  the  sec- 
ondary school  had  to  take  the  initiative  and,  in  a  sense,  force 
the  issue,  in  order  to  adapt  itself  to  the  demands  of  its 
situation. 

City  and  state  control. —  From  what  has  been  said  at  dif- 
ferent points  in  this  chapter  it  is  evident  that  secondary  edu- 
cation underwent  other  changes.  Its  external  relations,  aside 
from  those  that  connected  it  with  the  university,  had  a  very 

10  Here  used  in  the  old  sense,  as  stereotyped  expressions. 

11  Instead  of  the  old  specific  requirements  of  subjects,  and  sec- 
tions and  amounts  of  subjects,  the  college  introduced  the  principle  of 
credit-units,  so  that  the  requisite  number  of  units  might  be  secured  by 
various  combinations,  giving  considerable  latitude  in  the  choice  of  one's 
secondary  school  curriculum.  A  student  graduated  into  college  or  into 
life  because  he  had  won  so  many  units,  not  because  he  had  covered  so 
much  ground  or  had  "  passed  "  so  many  studies.  The  plan  was  not  a 
consistent  and  genuinely  educational  one,  but  it  did  give  more  lati- 
tude to  the  individual  and  more  freedom  to  the  school.  It  was  a  step 
toward  the  power  test  for  advance  in  education.    See  XXIII,  p.  413. 


3io 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


interesting  development.  From  being  merely  individual,  re- 
sponsible only  to  some  local  organization  and  to  local  preju- 
dice, secondary  schools  became  a  part  of  systems,  city  and 
state.  They  thus  became  fully  secularized.  We  have  already 
noticed  the  first  step  in  this  systematization  (Chapter  XIV). 
The  schools  enlarged  their  relations  in  the  seventeenth  century 
and  became  responsible  to  state  systems.12  But  state  systems 
in  the  fullest  sense  were  the  products  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. To  take  some  of  the  typical  states  in  Europe,  Prussia, 
of  course,  occurs  to  one  as  the  earliest  and  most  conspicuous 
example  of  full  articulation  and  systematization.  France  fol- 
lowed. England  still  delays.  The  English  government  long 
ago  took  an  interest  in  education  13  and  established  a  kind  of 
"  code  "  governing  secondary  school  management,  but  even  as 
yet  there  is  nothing  that  can  be  called  a  system.  System  is 
hardly  characteristic  of  England  in  any  direction.  Solidarity 
is  attained  in  other  ways. 

Our  own  States  furnished  the  only  example  of  free  second- 
ary education  of  wide-spread  application.  They  organized  it 
on  the  basis  of  cooperation  by  state  and  local  authorities.  As 
a  rule  the  establishment  of  secondary  schools  depended  on  local 
initiative,  the  state  government  establishing  only  general  regu- 
lations and  occasionally  offering  some  financial  assistance.14 
But  in  some  States,  notably  in  Massachusetts,  provision  for  sec- 
ondary  instruction  for  all  children  was   made   compulsory. 

12  Saxony  and  Wurttemberg  were  probably  the  first  to  really  enter  the 
field  of  state  systems.  Previous  attempts  at  state  control  need  hardly 
be  considered  here,  so  far  as  permanent  results  are  concerned. 

la  De  Montmorency  has  told  the  story  in  one  of  the  most  interesting 
of  pedagogical  books,  "  State  Intervention  in  Eng.  Education." 

14  In  the  United  States  secondary  education  is  a  regular  part  of 
state  systems  in  the  various  states.  It  is  permanently  secured  by  state 
regulation,  and  is  so  distributed  as  to  be  made  accessible  practically  to 
the  whole  school  population  in  most  localities.  Local  initiative  at  first 
was  the  only  source  of  free  secondary  education.  It  is  still  given  free 
play,  so  far  as  consistent  with  general  state  requirements  for  providing 
secondary  schools.  The  finances  are  a  part  of  the  local  budget,  but 
in  certain  cases  state  funds  are  also  appropriated  to  aid  and  encourage 
the  growth  of  these  schools,  known  universally  as  High  Schools,  and 
to  ensure  certain  courses  of  study.  While  private  secondary  schools, 
known  by  various  names,  abound  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  the  High 
School  is  the  typical  secondary  school  agency  in  all  the  states  and  is 
amply  provided  for  by  local,  state,  and  national  sentiment  and  re- 
sources, 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  311 

Even  here,  however,  system  did  not  reach  the  stage  exemplified 
in  Prussia.  Individual  initiative,  spontaneous  development, 
and  adaptation  to  local  needs  still  had  place  and  assured  a  fresh 
and  vigorous  growth.  Beyond  the  special  points  just  referred 
to  the  natural  ambitions  of  men  in  a  free  country  pushed  the 
establishment  of  high  schools  about  as  far  as  a  central  author- 
ity could  go.  Our  high  schools  were  a  spontaneous  outgrowth 
of  public  sentiment, —  the  natural  budding  of  our  elementary 
schools. 

Summary. —  This  spontaneous  growth  of  secondary  educa- 
tion and  its  instinctive  reactions  to  the  social  and  industrial 
conditions  of  the  times,  culminating  in  the  differentiation  of 
curricula  and  schools,  gave  the  secondary  school  new  life  and 
freedom.  It  was  a  maturing  of  secondary  school  instincts 
and  ambitions.  Through  it  all  the  school  was  gradually  assum- 
ing the  counterpart  of  the  position  that  it  held  at  the  time  of 
the  old  tribal  secondary  school,15  when  it  was  the  only  school 
known.  In  this  position  it  was  eventually  to  be  as  fully  respon- 
sive to  modern,  as  it  was  before  to  primitive  conditions.  Edu- 
cators were  coming  to  see  that  the  high  school  is  not  a  sub- 
ordinate, but  a  cooperative  and  coordinate  agency  in  determin- 
ing and  fulfilling  educational  policy,  and  as  such  sure  to  have 
a  wonderful  future.  It  had  not  yet  accomplished  this  position, 
for  there  was  much  that  was  indefinite  and  indecisive  and  un- 
corrected in  its  action.  It  was  not  yet  fully  conscious  of  its 
real  mission,  not  yet  settled  in  its  .real  ends  and  aims,  but  it 
was  making  headway. 

APPENDIX 

Brief  resume  of  the  growth  of  secondary  education  for  girls. — 

The  subject  of  the  higher  education  of  woman  is  sufficient  for  a  book. 
Brief  reference  to  some  of  the  main  points  in  its  history  is  all  that 
will  be  in  place  here. 

We  found  in  studying  Roman  education  that  woman  had  notable 
influence  there  and  was  accorded  unusual  privileges  in  secondary 
education  that  advanced  her  immeasurably  beyond  the  position  of  the 
Greek  matron.  After  Rome  she  lost  this  commanding  position  in 
education  and  dropped  into  an  obscure  place  from  which  she  has  only 
recently  rescued  herself.     In  the  Middle  Ages  and  later  she  shared  the 

15  See  Chapters  I  and  II, 


312  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

cloister  education,  it  is  true,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  could  be 
called  in  any  degree  secondary,  as  in  the  case  of  that  prescribed  for 
boys,  except  that  it  was  the  education  provided  for  adolescent  girls. 
Great  educators  pressed  the  thought  on  the  educational  world,  but  it 
was  not  till  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  conditions 
were  essentially  changed.  Eighteen  centuries  of  educational  history 
since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  were  practically  a  blank  in 
the  matter  of  secondary  education  for  girls. 

The  great  nations  of  Europe  hesitatingly  accorded  the  new  right 
to  woman.  Till  recently  it  was  left  largely  to  private  initiative.  But 
the  policy  made  sufficient  headway,  even  in  the  most  conservative  coun- 
tries, to  give  the  principle  some  standing  and  force.  France  was 
more  spontaneous  in  the  matter  than  other  foreign  countries,  and 
freely  lent  state  influence  to  the  movement.  The  United  States 
accorded  the  new  secondary  school  privileges  unreservedly,  and  did 
it  early.  The  academy  movement,  in  the  early  part  of  the  period  we 
are  reviewing,  gave  almost  the  first  substantial  secondary  school  privi- 
leges to  girls.  Sometimes  academies  were  intended  simply  for  advanced 
education ;  sometimes  they  were  expressly  planned  for  training  teachers, 
and  thus  served  as  the  first  normal  schools.  The  special  agitation  for 
a  free  girls'  high  school,  following  the  establishment  of  the  English 
High  School  for  boys  in  Boston,  in  1821,  was  the  next  notable  step. 
Finally  the  wonderful  development  of  high  schools  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  assured  free  secondary  education  for  all 
the  people. 

The  non-sexing  of  secondary  schools  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
phenomena  in  educational  history.  A  perfectly  natural  phase  of  this 
non-sexing,  especially  in  America,  is  co-education,  and  a  striking  result 
of  this  latter  policy,  due  partly  to  pedagogical  and  administrative  mis- 
takes, is  that  girls  outstripped  boys  in  our  high  schools,  both  in  num- 
bers and  scholarship. 

Problems  involved. —  Since  the  achievement  of  free  public  secon- 
dary education  for  girls  through  our  high  schools  several  problems 
have  shown  themselves.  One  problem  is  a  social  one,  the  discussion 
of  which  has  thus  far  been  so  meager  that  the  problem  itself  has  hardly 
taken  final  form,  though  it  is  evident  that  there  is  something  that  de- 
mands careful  thought.  Another  problem  has  to  do  with  the  question  of 
curriculum, —  whether  the  same  studies  are  adapted  to  the  two  sexes. 
It  is  plain  that  psychical  differences  correlate  with  physiological  dif- 
ferences, and  that  differences  in  vocation  and  in  social  functions  should 
affect  the  curriculum,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  settled 
that  differentiation  is  necessary  in  the  secondary  school. 

There  is  however  another  and  more  definite  problem  based  on  a 
difference  in  physiology  and  psychology  between  the  sexes.  In  the 
early  high  school  course  the  girl  is  found  to  be  two  years  in  advance 
of  the  boy  in  physical  and  mental  development.  Hence  the  boy  is 
impressed  with  the  spectacle  of  seemingly  falling  behind  in  the  race, 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  313 

and  teachers  are  goaded  by  the  disparity  into  unsympathetic  attitudes 
toward  the  delinquents.  This  divergence  in  growth  would  seem  to 
suggest  some  separation  of  the  sexes,  in  some  subjects  at  least,  during  a 
part  of  the  high  school  course.  If  we  follow  what  seem  to  be  the 
soundest  principles  of  election,  we  get  some  help,  it  is  true,  but  the 
problem  still  persists.  Even  if  election  could  go  further,  the  two  sexes 
would  tend  to  group  themselves  about  their  individual  curricula  through 
feelings  stimulated  by  temporary,  rather  than  permanent,  conditions,  as 
will  be  seen  from  what  has  just  been  said.16  The  problem  must  be 
met  by  a  better  understanding  of  adolescence  on  the  part  of  teachers, 
which  will  come  through  better  professional  training;  this  will  bring 
better  appreciation  and  sympathy  and  hence  wiser  dealing  with  groups 
and  individuals.17 

A  fourth  problem  has  to  do  with  physical  development.  The  ques- 
tion has  been  raised  whether,  in  the  close  association  of  the  sexes  in 
large  numbers,  under  loose  supervision  and  without  adequate  physical 
direction  and  training,  the  development  of  sex  qualities  is  not  unduly 
and  unhealthfully  stimulated.  It  is  an  undeveloped  problem  at  present 
and  goes  to  the  twentieth  century  with  some  incisiveness. 

16  This  is  shown  by  the  course  of  events  in  colleges,  where  such 
artificial  groups  are  forming,  narrowing  the  curriculum  of  both  sexes. 
Certain  courses  come  to  be  known  as  girls'  courses,  certain  others  as 
boys'  courses.     Hence  a  new  kind  of  caste  arises. 

17  See  Note  7,  page  420. 


XX 

SECONDARY   EDUCATION    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY  — 
PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE 

Contributions  of  the  period  to  the  "new  pedagogy." — 
In  following  the  external  history  of  the  period  it  has  been  evi- 
dent that  the  secondary  school  made  rapid  progress  peda- 
gogically.  In  fact  the  most  significant  progress  was  made  in 
this  direction.  If  we  are  to  understand  the  new  epoch  in  sec- 
ondary education,  we  must  consider  this  side  of  its  history. 
We  shall  take  up  here,  however,  only  a  brief  survey  of  this 
inner  history  of  the  19th  century,  noting  the  most  conspicuous 
contributions  to  the  principles  and  practice  of  education.1 

1.  A  new  psychology. —  First  then  we  should  notice  that, 
as  a  foundation  for  the  new  growth  of  pedagogy,  the  nine- 
teenth century  developed  a  new  psychology.  This  psychology, 
in  the  first  place,  emphasized  the  unity  of  mind  in  place  of  the 
old  disintegration  represented  by  the  older  "  faculty  psy- 
chology " ;  in  the  second  place,  it  gave  a  more  concrete  and 
physiological  aspect  to  the  science,  instead  of  the  former 
abstractions,  thus  awakening  a  new  interest  in  mental  hygiene ; 
in  the  third  place,  it  gave  a  specialized  psychology, —  the  psy- 
chology of  childhood,  the  psychology  of  adolescence,  and 
pathological  psychology,  with  the  psychological  clinic.  Of  the 
special  psychologies  child-study  developed  from  fragmentary 
and  often  ill-advised  work  into  a  science,  useful  and  used  in 
every  elementary  school-room  that  pretended  to  be  modern ; 
the  psychology  of  adolescence,  more  important  for  our  pur- 
pose, also  attained  the  dignity  of  a  science,  but  had  less  effect 
on  the  secondary  school  than  the  first  on  the  elementary  school. 
Its  fuller  adaptation  and  application  to  the  problems  of  second- 

1  Most  of  the  gains  here  noted  belong  to  the  last  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  particularly,  and  so  represent  the  culmination  of  develop- 
ment, rather  than  the  general  practice  of  the  whole  period. 

314 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  315 

ary  education  is  the  work  of  a  new  century  and  offers  an  inspir- 
ing opportunity.  The  third,  pathological  psychology,  was  of 
service  to  the  exceptional  child  and  to  the  community,  often 
saving  the  child  to  himself  and  to  society,  and  making  him  a 
positive  instead  of  a  negative  factor. 

2.  A  new  philosophy  of  education. —  A  new  philosophy 
of  education  came  to  view.  Every  teacher  who  is  more  than 
a  mechanic  studies  relations  and  meanings,  and  unifies  educa- 
tional facts  by  reference  to  some  central  idea  that  gives  them 
consistency  and  significance.  This  is  his  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion. So  the  educational  world  as  a  whole,  through  some  able 
exponent,  makes  a  philosophy  of  education.  Sometimes  this 
philosophy  is  no  more  than  an  interpretation  of  the  history  of 
civilization  from  the  point  of  view  of  education.  Sometimes 
it  is  an  attempt  to  give  a  new  and  more  helpful  direction  and 
radiation  to  educational  thought  and  practice,  and  a  more 
helpful  insight  into  educational  processes  and  organization. 
The  basis  is  sometimes  biology,  sometimes  sociology  or  psy- 
chology. In  all  cases  it  represents  an  effort  to  unify  and 
correlate,  and  hence  to  focus  attention  on  fundamental 
ideas.  The  secondary  school  shared  in  the  inspiration  of  such 
philosophy,  though  perhaps  less  productively  than  other 
schools. 

3.  A  change  in  the  direction  or  point  of  view  of  educa- 
tion.—  As  a  consequence  of  the  new  psychology  the  direction 
of  education,  or  the  point  of  view  of  education,  was  changing, 
at  least  in  the  minds  of  the  most  thoughtful  educators.  For- 
merly school  training  was  an  external  matter  brought  to  bear 
on  the  pupil  and  working  its  way  into  the  inner  forces;  a 
systematic  course  of  study  disciplining  the  powers  was  the 
central  idea.  The  more  fruitful  idea  of  the  period  under  dis- 
cussion was  that  the  direction  is  from  within  outward,  that 
education  is  the  development  of  power  under  wise  and  sympa- 
thetic guidance,  a  natural  growth  based  on  the  laws  of  general 
physical  and  intellectual  evolution.  This  point  of  view  is 
genetic  and  sociological,  and  it  has  peculiar  significance  in  the 
adolescent  period. 

4.  An  enlargement  of  aim. —  The  aim  of  education  there- 
fore changed.     Instead  of  the  somewhat  hazy  idea  of  disci- 


316  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

pline,  and  the  more  definite  and  absorbing  idea  of  the  develop- 
ment of  a  study-subject,  came  that  of  the  development  of 
character,  and  training  for  community  life,  to  be  considered 
in  its  highest  significance.  The  idea  of  character  itself  grew 
immensely.  The  broadest  definition  of  education  made  it  a 
process  which  gives,  I,  mastery  of  environment,  developing  all 
one's  powers  to  their  fullest  possibilities,  by  using  and  direct- 
ing self-activity  in  productive  exercise  in  this  environment; 
2,  power  to  apply  and  create. 

Secondary  education  therefore,  in  its  larger  significance, 
now  proposed  to  give  the  student  power  not  merely  to  compre- 
hend, but  to  use  his  inheritances  and  his  relations  in  science, 
literature,  art,  religion,  and  civic  and  industrial  functions. 

5.  Growth  of  Method. —  Method  had  a  striking  develop- 
ment. I.  Its  psychological  basis  changed.  In  the  direction  of 
general  method,  a  progressive  development  of  all  kinds  of 
power,  whether  mental  or  physical,  took  the  place  of  the  older 
idea  of  developing  separate  faculties  at  special  periods.  Each 
phase  of  mental  or  physical  life  has  its  appropriate  develop- 
ment at  each  period,  and  requires  as  much  care  in  each  period 
as  it  does  in  the  period  when  it  predominates  and  gives  tone 
to  life.  What  was  to  the  older  psychology  a  separate  faculty 
was  now  found  to  be  only  one  phase  of  a  unified  mental  life ; 
through  it  the  whole  mind,  better  the  whole  man  (since  phys- 
ical and  mental  are  closely  correlated),  was  conceived  as  work- 
ing, each  part  of  the  whole  making  its  own  special  contribution 
to  the  special  phase  in  question.  As  to  order  and  organization, 
method  became  more  developmental.  An  educational  process 
that  takes,  as  its  foundation,  interest  in  the  concrete  and 
real  contact  with  things,  and  with  fine  sympathy  stimulates 
a  natural  growth  from  this  basis  to  wider  and  wider  generaliza- 
tions suited  to,  and  hence  appreciated  by,  the  growing  adoles- 
cent at  different  times,  and  thence  to  abstract  thought,  like- 
wise by  gradation,  lays  the  surest  foundation  for  intelligent 
citizenship  and  productive  service.  Such  a  process  uses  nat- 
ural interests  and  builds  acquired  interests  wisely  and  broadly, 
so  that  the  latter  readily  reach  out  to  all  grades  of  intellectual 
and  physical  work.  Such  a  method  and  the  user  of  it  infuse 
the  educational  process  with  an  inspiration  that  appeals  pecul- 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  317 

iarly  to  the  secondary  school  pupil  and  wakens  enthusiasm 
through  which  he  expresses  himself.  In  this  process  educa- 
tors were  not  bringing  elementary  school  methods  into  second- 
ary schools,  as  might  seem  to  be  the  case  from  emphasis  on 
objective  work.  Both  schools  represent  a  cycle  of  method- 
elements  beginning  with  the  concrete  and  leading  up  to  the 
general.  Interest  of  the  secondary  pupil  in  objective  work  is 
a  very  different  thing  from  that  of  the  elementary  pupil, — 
broader,  richer,  more  suggestive,  and  involving  more  points 
of  view.  Similarly  the  abstract  in  the  elementary  school  is 
very  different  from  the  abstract  in  the  secondary  school  and 
has  a  different  function.  Failure  to  recognize  this  difference 
has  relegated  concrete  and  objective  work  chiefly  to  the  ele- 
mentary school,  whereas  its  most  promising  field  is  in  the  sec- 
ondary school. 

2.  The  form  of  method  changed.  From  being  predomi- 
nantly deductive  and  didactic,  at  its  best  it  became  inductive 
in  all  directions.  This  was  seen  in  the  various  forms  of 
inductive  work  in  science ;  but  it  was  seen  as  well  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  rule  in  arithmetic,  which  now  stood  after  the  con- 
crete illustrations ;  in  the  laboratory  method  and  original  propo- 
sition in  geometry;  in  the  source  method,  of  different  forms, 
in  history;  in  the  development  of  grammar  through,  and  in 
connection  with,  language,  making  grammar  in  fact  a  derived 
and  advanced  subject,  rather  than  a  fundamental  one;  and  in 
the  correlation  of  rhetoric  and  literature.  The  new  methods 
were  not  yet  universal ;  most  of  them  could  hardly  be  said  to 
hold  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  economy  of  the  secondary 
school.  But  they  had  a  striking  effect  on  procedure.  The 
laboratory  method  in  science  was  the  most  firmly  fixed  of  all, 
though  not  yet  perfected.  The  laboratory  method  in  geometry 
was  found  in  the  schools  only  occasionally,  but  the  old  abstract 
method  was  modified  by  the  laboratory  idea.  Similarly  the 
source  method  in  history  was  seldom  found  in  its  type  form, 
but  the  old  rote  methods  gave  place  to  more  educational  ones 
that  adopted  something  of  the  source  idea,  in  the  direction  of 
investigation  and  discussion.  The  formal  classical  method  in 
foreign  languages  generally  yielded  to  the  idea  of  the  direct 
method  enough  to  relieve  it  of  what  was  most  hampering. 


3i8  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Thus,  while  much  of  the  old  order  and  its  abstract  procedure 
was  still  found  in  the  schools,  formal  methods  gave  way  to  a 
certain  extent  to  developmental  ones,  and  were,  sparingly  and 
reluctantly,  but  surely,  supplemented  by  objective  work  and  the 
spirit  of  individual  thought,  observation,  and  experiment. 
Much  therefore  was  done  to  give  a  clearer  and  more  vital 
contact  with  educational  material  and  forces.  The  new  be- 
came prominent  enough  to  characterize  the  epoch,  though  need- 
ing to  be  worked  out  far  more  scientifically  and  with  far  more 
appreciation  of  its  true  meaning. 

6.  The  elective  principle. —  The  principle  of  election  came 
into  the  economy  of  the  secondary  school.  It  came  because 
the  number  of  departments  of  knowledge  worthy  of  study  by 
secondary  pupils  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  no  one  could 
even  touch  them  all,  to  say  nothing  of  real  initiation  into  them, 
which  is  the  secondary  pupil's  natural  heritage.  It  came  also 
because  it  had  become  necessary  to  adjust  school  programs  to 
individual  needs  and  to  special  ends.2  In  carrying  out  the 
principle  there  was  an  attempt  to  find,  among  the  subjects  of 
the  secondary  school  program,  a  "  core  of  constants,"  to  which 
different  more  or  less  consistent  groups  of  studies  might  be 
added  to  suit  individuals  and  to  prepare  for  special  occupa- 
tions and  professions,  as  well  as  for  advanced  courses  of  study.3 

7.  Discovery  of  secondary  school  principles  for  a  sec- 
ondary school  philosophy.— The  discontinuance  of  prepara- 

2  Of  course  such  a  principle  would  receive  at  first  incomplete  and 
even  crude  application  and  would  be  subject  to  mistakes,  even  serious 
mistakes,  in  applying.  It  has  not  even  yet  fully  found  and  occupied  its 
place.  The  principle  is  good  and  meets  a  very  definite  need.  With 
wise  adjustment  it  will  fulfil  effectively  its  legitimate  functions.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  place  to  argue  its  merits  or  defects,  but  to  record 
its  adoption  into  our  system  of  education  and  its  limited  adaptation  to 
secondary  education.  It  was  generally  applied  to  curricula  rather  than 
to  individual  studies,  but  the  latter  application  was  not  wholly  excluded. 
Naturally,  with  this  departure  from  the  fixed  curriculum  idea,  qualifi- 
cations for  promotion  and  graduation  were  based  on  units  of  work 
done,  rather  than  upon  the  completion  of  specified  studies.  This  point, 
however,  will  be  taken  up  more  specifically  in  a  later  chapter. 

3  It  was  as  a  consequence  of  this  broadening  and  adapting  of  the 
secondary  curriculum,  giving  greater  play  to  individual  initiative,  that 
the  colleges  revised  and  liberalized  their  relations  to_  the  secondary 
school  by  making  their  admission  requirements  depend  in  part  on  units 
of  work,  instead  of  wholly  on  prescribed  studies. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  319 

tory  schools  by  the  universities  and  the  broader  and  more  elastic 
admission  requirements,  taken  in  connection  with  the  great 
increase  in  variety  of  secondary  education  coming  through 
differentiation  in  secondary  schools,  make  it  evident  that  there 
was  a  change  in  the  spirit  of  secondary  education.  The  sec- 
ondary school  came  to  appreciate,  in  a  degree,  its  own  signifi- 
cance and  power.  It  therefore  discovered  sound  principles 
for  developing  in  itself  school  feeling,  thought,  and  judgment. 
It  became  a  thinker,  no  longer  dependent  for  policy  upon  the 
thought  of  other  schools  that  did  not  have  its  point  of  view 
and  upon  doctrinaire  schemes ;  it  had  attained  its  majority. 
To  have  discovered  real  secondary  school  principles  for  judg- 
ing of  ends  and  means  and  for  interpreting  general  educa- 
tional policy  was  one  of  the  most  important  achievements  of 
the  time.  A  real  secondary  school  philosophy  was  at  hand. 
It  remained  to  incorporate  the  principles  thoroughly  in  the 
working  programs  of  the  school  and  to  work  out  the 
philosophy. 

A  new  school  agency  —  A  training  school  for  teachers. — 
But  the  times  demanded  a  new  and  more  effective  instrument 
for  utilizing  all  the  gains  of  the  age.  What  should  it  be  ?  The 
old  formal  curriculum,  together  with  the  simple  method,  in- 
herited from  the  later  Renaissance  period,  that  required  of 
teachers  only  scholarship  and  power  to  grasp  traditional  forms, 
had  passed  away.  Broader  and  more  intricate  schemes  of  sec- 
ondary education  were  developing  to  meet  individual  needs  and 
to  give  pupils  preliminary  initiation  into  a  more  and  more  com- 
plicated and  exacting  business  and  professional  world.  These 
were  awakening  genuine  interests  and  enthusiasms  that  would 
lead  pupils  finally  into  the  technique  of  the  particular  form  of 
life  suited  to  them.  The  idea  of  special  training  for  one's 
work  had  become  prominent  and  impressive.  Why  should  not 
teaching  share  in  this  idea?  Particularly  the  new  science  of 
education  which  combined  the  psychology  of  education,  the 
philosophy  of  education,  and  educational  sociology,  as  well 
as  methodology,  was  pressing  its  claims.  It  was  supplying  mo- 
tives, principles,  and  practices  calculated  to  lead  to  a  surer 
fulfilment  of  secondary  school  ends,  especially  its  new  ends. 
All  this  was  felt,  if  not  expressly  acknowledged.     Altogether 


320 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


teaching  was  forced  to  regard  itself  as  a  profession  for  which 
special  training  must  be  provided.  There  was  thus  needed  a 
new  institution  that  would  focus  the  new  principles  and  ideals 
and  train  workers  and  leaders  in  a  new  education.  Thus  came 
schemes  for  the  professional  training  of  teachers,  and  the  nor- 
mal school, —  model  school  or  school  of  norms, —  for  adminis- 
tering those  schemes. 

The  normal  school. —  The  new  school  began  in  this  country 
at  the  end  of  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It 
began  much  earlier  in  Europe.  In  fact  an  occasional  normal 
school  was  found  in  the  Renaissance  period,  when  the  normal 
school  idea  had  its  inception.  It  had  a  wonderful  effect  on  the 
elementary  schools,  making  them  far  outstrip  higher  education 
in  efficiency. 

Training  for  secondary  teachers. —  The  spirit  of  profes- 
sional training  reached  the  secondary  school  partly  through  the 
influence  of  the  normal  school,  partly  through  an  indigenous 
influence  in  the  secondary  field  itself.  Training  for  secondary 
teachers  began  in  Europe  in  the  eighteenth  century  and  grew 
with  varying  results.  In  this  country  the  normal  schools  at 
one  time  offered  training  for  both  elementary  and  secondary 
teachers,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  sent  many  graduates  into 
the  secondary  schools.  But,  being  organized  particularly  for 
training  elementary  teachers,  they  were  inadequate  for  prepar- 
ing teachers  for  the  new  secondary  education.  They  failed  to 
attract  students  who  were  scholastically  equipped  by  college 
and  university  training  for  secondary  teaching.  There  must 
therefore  be  some  special  agency  to  supply  professional  train- 
ing for  these  students,  if  they  were  to  come  up  to  the  new 
ideals.  Scholarship  alone  could  not  fit  them  to  cope  with  the 
teaching  conditions  that  confronted  them,  though  there  was  a 
prevailing  college  notion  that  this  was  enough.  Secondary 
school  teaching  required  first  of  all  a  study  of  the  secondary 
school  pupil,  who  is  radically  different  from  the  elementary 
school  pupil  psychologically  and  pedagogically.  It  required 
also  a  careful  study  of  the  subject  matter  of  curricula  with 
special  reference  to  secondary  school  needs.  To  focus  and 
apply  all  this  in  teaching  it  was  necessary  to  develop  a  method 
adapted  to  adolescence.     The  problem  of  secondary  education 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY  321 

had  become  so  large  and  complex  and  ideas  of  teaching  had 
advanced  so  far  that  there  was  a  demand  for  a  product  differ- 
ent from  that  which  college  or  university  could  supply  by  their 
typical  courses.  Hence  the  rise  of  a  new  training  school.  It 
was  supplied  in  higher  schools  of  learning  by  different  plans 
and  was  called  by  different  names,  now  department  of  educa- 
tion, now  school  of  education,  and  sometimes  college  of 
education.4 

In  this  country  small  beginnings  of  this  new  school  appeared 
toward  the  end  of  the  last  century.  It  was  slow  in  coming  and 
slow  in  growing,  probably  because  of  the  stubborn  academic 
feeling  that  the  college  as  then  constituted  gave  training  enough, 
and  because  of  a  prevailing  college  tendency  to  disparage  nor- 
mal school  standards  and  normal  school  work,  with  which  the 
new  training  plans  were  rather  loosely  associated.  Before  the 
century  closed,  however,  there  was  conspicuous  activity  and 
development  in  the  direction  of  special  college  training  for  sec- 
ondary school  teachers.  Means  were  crude  and  inadequate, 
and  there  was  little  progress  beyond  a  very  general  training, 
except  in  one  or  two  conspicuous  schools.  Professional  train- 
ing for  secondary  school  teachers  must  be  broadened  and  deep- 
ened and  more  thoroughly  organized.  Particularly  must  it 
provide  larger  opportunities  for  specialized  training  for  teach- 
ing secondary  school  subjects  and  for  understanding  secondary 
school  administration.  For  this  purpose  it  must  supply  larger 
facilities  for  practical  work. 

General  characterization  of  the  period. —  As  the  secondary 
school  became  a  subject  of  study  on  the  outside  and  inside,  in 
its  relations  to  curriculum  and  method,  teachers  and  pupils, 
town  and  state,  and  as  this  study  took  practical  effect  in  better 
provisions  for  secondary  education  in  all  its  phases,  there  were 
better  conditions  for  the  working  of  the  law  of  natural  selec- 
tion, in  relation  to  both  teachers  and  pupils,  and  surer  ground 

4  For  the  best  complete  and  detailed  account  of  the  rise  and  develop- 
ment of  professional  training  for  secondary  school  teachers  in  this 
country  see  Professor  G.  W.  A.  Lackey's  book  on  this  subject.  Other 
matter  on  the  topic  will  be  found  in  the  history  of  certain  academies, 
which  were  of  much  service  in  training  teachers  at  a  critical  period  in 
our  educational  history.  The  academy  was  sometimes  merely  a  semi- 
nary for  teachers. 


322  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

for  sound  development  in  all  directions.  The  secondary  school 
was  coming  to  serve  community  interests  more  effectively. 
There  was,  however,  need  of  further  organization  to  bring 
fragments  together,  to  establish  just  relationships,  to  secure 
and  give  meaning  and  steadiness  to  elements  now  drifting 
rather  aimlessly,  to  orientate  parts  by  connecting  them  with  the 
secondary  movement  as  a  whole  and  with  society  as  a  whole. 
This  must  be  accomplished  in  the  new  century. 

Needs. —  Secondary  education  had  an  exuberant  growth 
during  the  last  century.  Its  most  striking  general  character- 
istics at  its  end  were,  on  the  one  hand,  its  breadth  and  variety, 
and,  on  the  other,  its  lack  of  unity  and  settled  aims.  Its  course 
of  development  and  the  results  cannot  be  better  illustrated  than 
by  the  history  of  our  High  School,  which  will  form  a  fitting 
close  for  this  story  of  the  growth  of  secondary  education. 


XXI 

THE   HIGH    SCHOOL  —  DEVELOPMENT   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Beginnings  of  our  educational  policy. —  Our  English  and 
Dutch  ancestors  settled  the  educational  policy  of  our  country. 
They  brought  in  educational  traditions,  forms,  principles,  and 
habits  that  are  felt  to-day.  Their  policy  has  grown  with  the 
country  and  has  received  infiltrations  from  other  sources  that 
have  accelerated,  or  retarded,  and  otherwise  modified,  its 
growth.  The  more  important  of  these  infiltrations,  however, 
have  come  from  sources  that  had  the  same  general  ideas  of  edu- 
cation that  prevailed  in  the  home  countries  of  both  peoples. 

Nature  of  early  schools. —  When  our  English  fathers  came, 
they  were  familiar  with  the  "  grammar "  school  system  that 
furnished  in  England  more  wide-spread  opportunities  for  edu- 
cation than  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.1 
The  Hollanders,  too,  were  accustomed  to  an  enterprising  sys- 
tem, rather  better,  if  anything,  than  the  one  in  England.  The 
educational  habits  of  our  early  fathers  worked  themselves  out 
in  schools  immediately  after  their  coming, —  schools  that  were 
copies  of  the  ones  they  knew  and  attended  in  the  home  coun- 
tries. Doubtless  standards  became  somewhat  diluted  here  be- 
cause of  pioneer  life  and  because  the  most  famous  school- 
masters remained  at  home.  At  the  same  time  the  freshness 
and  vigor  of  the  new  life  gave  opportunity  to  break  from  tradi- 
tion, and  to  substitute  for  slow,  conservative  development  a 
quicker  and  more  spontaneous  growth.  This  made  itself  felt 
later. 

First  secondary  school  —  The  "  Grammar  School." — 
Whatever  may  be  said  as  to  elementary  education,  there  can  be 
no  question  that  the  secondary  school  started  in  New  England. 
It  has  spread  thence  over  the  country,  modifying  itself  to  suit 

1  See  Chapter  XVII,  p.  279. 

323 


324  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

time  and  circumstance.  Schools  sprang  up  spontaneously  in 
the  first  years  of  settlement,  the  Boston  Latin  Grammar  School 
being  the  pioneer.  But  the  famous  rescript  of  the  General 
Court  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  put  the  matter  on  a 
legal  basis  a  few  years  later  (1647),  and  every  community  of 
100  families  must  thereafter  maintain  a  grammar  school  or 
suffer  the  penalty  of  the  law.  Thus  began  the  first  secondary 
schools  in  America,  the  grammar  schools.  They  were  out- 
spoken preparatory  schools  for  Harvard  College,  which  was 
only  a  little  more  advanced  grammar  school. 

The  curriculum. —  Curriculum  and  method  were  copied 
from  the  home  grammar  schools.  In  fact,  we  must  think  of 
an  average  Renaissance  school  in  England.  The  early  cur- 
riculum of  St.  Paul's  school,  which  was  established  about  this 
time  and  attracted  wide  attention  from  its  enterprising  spirit, 
was  religious  instruction,  Latin,  and  Greek.  The  colonial 
grammar  schools  had  a  similar  curriculum,  with  the  emphasis 
on  Latin ;  but  arithmetic  was  added  in  some  cases,  and,  owing 
to  the  exigencies  of  the  times  when  primary  instruction  was 
precarious,  reading  and  writing  had  to  be  taught  to  give  the 
necessary  preparation  for  undertaking  secondary  studies. 
Requirements  for  admission  to  Harvard,  which  were  a  kind  of 
gauge  of  grammar  school  accomplishment,  were  ability  to  read 
any  classical  author  into  English  readily,  make  and  speak  true 
Latin,  prose  and  verse,  and  perfectly  decline  paradigms  of 
nouns  and  verbs  in  Greek. 

The  method. —  The  method  was  the  typical  grammar  method, 
which,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  been  relieved  by  the  new 
Renaissance  text-books.  One  of  the  famous  beginner's  books 
of  the  time  was  produced  in  the  colonies  by  Ezekiel  Cheever. 
It  was  similar  in  type  to  the  books  described  in  the  appendix  to 
Chapter  XVI.  The  method  in  general  was  probably  neither 
better  nor  worse  than  that  which  prevailed  in  the  Old  World. 
It  was  improving,  but  was  still  hampered  by  the  fetters  that 
Sturm  and,  before  him,  medievalism,  had  forged. 

These  grammar  schools  represented  the  earliest  efforts  for 
secondary  education.  The  New  England  colony  was  noted  for 
its  enterprise  in  education  and  sent  its  enterprise  westward 
when  the  time  came  to  send  colonists  there.     New  York  and 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  325 

New  Jersey  in  lesser  degree  took  up  secondary  education  and 
added  the  weight  of  their  influence  in  establishing  a  double 
standard  of  instruction.2 

Decline  of  the  grammar  school  idea. —  But  on  the  whole 
the  grammar  schools  did  not  prosper,  so  far  as  increase  in 
numbers  was  concerned.  The  early  settlers'  minds  were 
divided  and  distracted  by  wars  and  rumors  of  wars ;  for  the 
rest,  men  were  busy  with  making  their  way  in  a  new  country. 
As  the  Revolution  drew  on  these  conditions  were  intensified. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  resources  of  the  colonies  were  drained, 
so  that  financial  difficulties  hindered  the  spread  of  grammar 
schools ;  at  any  rate  they  furnished  convenient  excuses  for 
escaping  the  law.  Outside  of  these  circumstances,  there  were 
others  of  a  social  or  religious  nature  that  prevented  the  enthusi- 
astic application  of  the  grammar  school  idea.  The  spectacle 
of  men  winning  their  way  and  attaining  great  influence  without 
higher  education  was  not  without  effect.3 

But  we  may  suspect  that  the  main  reason  for  the  halting  of 
the  grammar  school  lay  deeper,  in  the  character  of  the  schools 
themselves.  There  was  a  deep-seated  indifference  to  them 
that  would  have  prevented  an  easy  acceptance,  even  if  other 
conditions  had  favored.  The  colonists  from  their  very  situa- 
tion were  forced  to  be  "  practical "  men.  They  could  hardly 
see  how  Latin,  especially  the  Latin  of  the  grammar  school, 
could  help  them  in  "  winning  the  wilderness."  The  average 
boy  needed  it  not.  The  few  who  were  to  enter  the  professions 
must  of  course  take  the  time  honored  preparation  that  was 

2  Besides  this  secondary  education  supplied  by  the  grammar  schools, 
some  secondary  instruction  was  also  possible  in  connection  with  the 
common  schools  provided  by  the  same  act  of  1647,  and  by  the  earlier 
act  of  1642.  These  schools  were  manned  by  college  men  who,  for  finan- 
cial reasons,  combined  study  and  teaching  and  offered  "  extra "  op- 
portunities to  individuals  to  take  up  some  secondary  studies.  Many 
a  boy  was  helped  toward  college  in  this  way.  This  was  a  later  develop- 
ment of  secondary  instruction,  but  still  it  came  early  and  existed  side 
by  side  with  grammar  schools.  It  should  perhaps  be  more  properly 
considered  a  little  further  on.  (See  page  327.)  These  two  agencies 
long  supplied  secondary  education  for  the  colonists,  and  it  was  of  no 
mean  sort,  as  education  of  the  time  went. 

3  Martin  in  his  Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Public  School  System 
has  in  a  very  interesting  way  followed  the  history  of  these  grammar 
schools,  and  has  gone  into  the  matter  more  fully  than  is  called  for  in 
a  chapter  of  this  character. 


326  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

supposed  to  be  the  key  to  higher  education  and  training.  "  But 
why,"  the  pioneer  might  ask,  "  should  my  son,  who  is  to  be  an 
industrial  worker  or  leader,  require  this  by-gone  curriculum?" 
Such  feelings,  even  though  unexpressed,  quite  possibly  worked 
against  the  grammar  schools.  How  else  shall  we  fully  explain 
the  quiet  opposition  of  the  people,  and  the  reluctance  of  the 
sheriffs  in  serving  writs,  when  the  law  enjoining  the  establish- 
ment of  such  schools  was  violated?  Such  an  attitude  could 
not  have  existed  if  the  service  of  these  schools  had  been 
regarded  as  vital.  This  feeling  would  have  all  the  more  force 
because  such  practical  ideas  as  have  been  noted  in  Chapter  XIV 
and  elsewhere  had  come  into  education  and  were  bearing  fruit. 
Industrial  and  trade  interests  had  already  made  their  contribu- 
tions to  certain  schools  in  the  form  of  new  studies  that  were 
proving  their  worth,  before  colonists  put  foot  in  the  new 
country. 

What  has  been  said  would  hold  good  with  grammar  schools 
at  their  best.  It  has  to  do  with  numbers  only.  But  the  schools 
probably  declined  in  quality  also.  The  curriculum,  from  its 
very  nature,  had  in  it  the  seeds  of  formalism  and  decay.  With 
so  little  applicable  to  practical  life  and  capable  of  adaptation  to 
changing  conditions  the  school  must  in  time  lose  life  and 
enthusiasm. 

Need  of  a  more  adaptable  school. —  From  all  the  circum- 
stances in  the  case  it  was  finally  evident  that  the  grammar 
schools  were  entirely  inadequate  to  the  demands  of  the  time. 
Some  other  school  agency  or  agencies  must  be  forthcoming  to 
meet  the  current  needs.4  The  old  demand  for  secondary  edu- 
cation remained.  Better  conditions  and  the  improving  circum- 
stances of  many  individuals  brought  a  call  for  higher  degrees 
of  education.  Culture  ideas  were  growing;  the  country  was 
smoothing  its  homely  but  attractive  and  honorable  roughness. 
It  was,  however,  a  new  culture  idea,  not  the  old,  or  at  least  it 
was  the  old  with  important  additions,  that  was  needed. 

4  Yet  grammar  schools  continued  to  be  established.  As  late  as  1759 
a  legacy  of  £388  was  given  the  town  of  Lincoln,  Mass.,  to  support  a 
grammar  school  forever.  For  60  years  the  income  was  paid  only  to 
such  teachers  as  could  teach  Latin  and  Greek.  This  led  to  the  more 
general  employment  of  college  graduates  and  undergraduates  and 
tended  to  give  a  more  substantial  character  to  the  school. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  327 

The  "  popular  "  secondary  school. —  The  need  was  met  by 
two  schools,  only  one  of  which  has  been  noticed,  or  at  any  rate 
adequately  noticed,  in  histories  of  education.     The  first  was  the 
"  district  school "  that  grew  most  naturally  out  of  the  life  of 
the  people.     The  grammar  school  was  an  imitation;  it  came 
from  without.     The  district  school  came  from  within.     It  grew 
up,  as  the  practical  "  common  "  or  "  elementary  "  school,  to 
suit  the  needs  of  neighborhoods.     Some  means  of  education 
had  to  be  devised  wherever  groups  of  people  were  found,  or 
wherever  a  central  school  could  accommodate  scattered  families 
within  a  convenient  radius  (and  often  an  inconvenient  one). 
Here  the  elements  of  a  common  school  education  were  found. 
The  school  was  ungraded.     It  took  all  who  could  come  and 
gave  each  his  quota  in  an  adaptable  program,  from  the  A,  B,  C's 
up.     The  scholars  were  grouped  according  to  advancement,  and 
so  might  form  one  group  for  one  study,  and  another  for  a  sec- 
ond study.     System  was  not  yet.     In  this  school  the  extent  of 
the  program,  or  rather  the  character  of  the  program,  depended 
on  the  teacher  who  could  be  procured  and  upon  the  needs  of 
individuals.     There  was  no  regular  curriculum.     Hence  these 
schools  offered  secondary  opportunities  as  well  as  those  of  a 
more  modest  nature.     For  a  part  of  the  year  they  were  regu- 
larly supplied  with  college  men  as  teachers,  who,  in  school  or 
out,  offered  to  ambitious  pupils  Latin,  Greek,  and  the  more 
advanced  mathematics.     This  provided  an  elastic  plan  that  in 
a  way  supplied   secondary  education  in   many  communities. 
This  was  natural  secondary  education.     It  grew  out  of,  or  was 
attached  to,  the  popular  schools.5     It  was  a  great  educational 
force  in  the  community,  possessed  great  vitality,   and   won 
peculiar  affection.     Its  effects  must  not  be  underestimated.6 
They  sank  deep  into  the  life  of  the  people  and  live  with  peculiar 
force  in  secondary  education  to-day.     They  tided  the  country 

5  Other  secondary  schools  were,  so  to  speak,  autochthonic.  They  did 
not  represent  a  growth  from  below.  They  began  in  the  early  history 
of  civilization  as  schools  for  adolescents,  before  primary  schools  ex- 
isted. After  schools  came  to  be  graded,  they  were  naturally  classed  as 
secondary  schools.  See  early  chapters  for  a  fuller  discussion  of  this 
feature. 

6  E.g.,  the  author's  native  town,  a  very  small  country  place,  some 
twelve  miles  from  Cambridge,  has  practically  never  been  without  its 
representatives  in  Harvard,  a  commentary  on  its  educational  spirit  fos- 


328  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

over  to  more  systematic  secondary  instruction,  better  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  a  growing  people. 

The  academy. —  But  there  was  needed  something  more 
than  this,  after  all,  rather  indefinite  means  of  secondary  edu- 
cation. There  was  a  call  for  something  more  specialized  and 
extended,  capable  of  supplying  a  larger  degree  of  culture, —  in 
the  main  a  finishing  school,  in  the  best  sense,  for  those  whose 
means  and  ambitions  combined  to  lead  them  beyond  the  district 
school.  It  came,  an  attractive  and  notable  secondary  school, 
establishing  itself  irregularly  as  endowments  and  opportunities 
offered  in  various  sections.  It  drew  pupils  from  the  school 
locality  and  also  from  remote  places,  so  that  it  had  to  become 
a  home  as  well  as  a  school.  Its  tributary  territory  was  wide 
or  narrow  according  to  its  reputation,  which  rose  and  fell 
according  to  the  ability  of  its  masters.  Some  of  our  most 
noted  teachers  made  their  reputations  there.  It  began  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  naturally  was  influ- 
enced by  the  new  movements  in  education  that  have  been  traced 
in  Chapter  XVIII.  This  school  was  the  Academy.  It  multi- 
plied rapidly  under  the  encouragement  of  the  state,  which  gave 
it  a  legal  status  and  aided  it  with  endowments  of  land  and 
money.  By  1850  there  were  some  6,000  academies  scattered 
through  the  different  states.  Their  fortunes  and  their  age 
limits  naturally  varied.  Their  lives  were  sometimes  short. 
They  declined  rapidly  in  number  after  the  middle  of  the 
century. 

Origin  of  the  academy. —  The  academy  was  a  natural 
product  of  the  country.  It  is  true  that  the  name  and  form 
came  originally  from  abroad.  As  it  grew  however  and  adapted 
itself  to  the  lives  of  the  people  it  was  thoroughly  American. 
More  than  this,  the  pressing  influences  that  have  been  noted 
were  calculated  to  issue  in  some  such  form  as  this  without  any 
importation.  The  imitation  would  seem  therefore  to  be  merely 
external.  The  personality  of  the  people  sochanged  the  institu- 
tion that  it  was  practically  an  indigenous  school.     It  served  a 

tered,  if  not  developed,  by  the  conditions  described,  though  in  this  case 
the  grammar  school  legacy  mentioned  above  was  a  factor  in  the  result. 
Similar  results,  at  least  notable  ones,  were  found  elsewhere, —  rather 
generally,  it  is  to  be  assumed. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  329 

great  purpose  and  gave  training  and  inspiration  to  the  leaders 
of  those  days. 

Curriculum. —  The  typical  curriculum  is  illustrated  by 
that  offered  by  the  trustees  of  Phillips  Andover  Academy,  one 
of  the  most  famous  schools  that  resulted  from  the  academy 
movement,  and  one  of  the  very  few  that  have  persisted  to  this 
day.     In  1778  the  purpose  was  stated  in  this  way: 

"  To  be  a  public  free  school  or  academy  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
structing youth  not  only  in  the  English  and  Latin  grammar,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  and  those  sciences  which  are  commonly  taught, 
but  more  especially  to  learn  them  the  great  and  real  business  of 
living.  There  may  also  be  added  music,  art  of  speaking,  practical 
geometry,  logic,  history,  and  such  other  liberal  arts  and  sciences 
or  languages  as  opportunity  or  ability  may  hereafter  admit  and 
as  trustees  may  direct."  7 

An  interesting  example. —  The  establishment  of  an  acad- 
emy in  the  author's  native  town,  a  New  England  village  of 
a  thousand  inhabitants  or  less  at  the  time,  furnishes  some 
interesting  points  as  to  the  development  of  the  academy  idea, 
and  at  the  same  time  gives  some  hints  as  to  organization  and 
method  at  that  time.8  In  1792,  through  the  work  of  an  asso- 
ciation called  the  "  Proprietors  of  the  Liberal  School  of 
Lincoln,"  an  academy  was  decided  upon.  Within  a  year  a 
building  was  provided  and  the  academy  began  its  work,  offer- 
ing as  its  curriculum  astronomy,  higher  mathematics,  rhetoric, 
Latin,  Greek,  and  principles  of  religion  and  morality.  Teachers 
prepared  the  text-books  and  they  were  transcribed  by  pupils. 
Here  Samuel  Hoar,  Professor  John  Farrar,  and  the  Rev. 
Cyrus  Pierce,  the  first  principal  of  the  first  normal  school 
in  the  United  States,  were  prepared  for  admission  to  Harvard. 
The  school  continued  for  about  fifteen  years.  The  building 
was  then  sold  to  the  town  and  used  for  a  district  school  till 
1872,  when  it  was  relegated  to  humbler  uses. 

From  Chancellor  Brown's  book,  The  Making  of  our  Middle 
Schools,  we  may  judge  that  the  following  list  of  secondary 
studies  represented  the  limits  of  curricula,  the  different  schools 
drawing  from  it  as  suited  their  purpose  and  the  conditions  of 

7  From  Brown's  Making  of  our  Middle  Schools. 

8  See  History  of  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass. 


330  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

their  work :  —  religious  instruction,  Latin  and  Greek,  English, 
mathematics  (on  which  strong  emphasis  was  laid),  surveying, 
navigation,  natural  philosophy  (chiefly  astronomy),  geography, 
history,  rhetoric,  logic,  moral  philosophy. 

Method. —  As  these  academies  showed  the  influence  of  the 
world-movement  in  curriculum,0  so  they  probably  did  in 
method.  Evidently  more  of  the, concrete  and  objective  and  ex- 
perimental was  found  there.  As  they  were  coming  nearer  to 
life,  so  they  were  coming,  in  their  modes,  nearer  to  the  proc- 
esses of  life.10 

We  must  not,  however,  suppose  that  the  policy  and  aims  of 
the  academy  were  uniform.  Their  early  purpose  has  been 
given  with  sufficient  definiteness.  Their  later  purpose  was  not 
so  simple. 

Change  in  relations  of  the  academy. —  The  old  grammar 
school,  as  we  have  seen,  was  peculiarly  related  to  the  college ; 
it  was  the  college's  preparatory  and  feeding  school.  As  the 
academy  came  in  and  the  grammar  school  sank  from  notice,  or, 
in  large  areas,  became  extinct,  the  academy  naturally  came  into 
close  relations  with  the  college  and  became  a  feeder.  Finally  it 
became  primarily  a  fitting  school,  and  its  place  as  a  general 
school  for  the  people  was  taken  by  another  institution. 

The  academy  differentiated  its  work  in  obedience  to  the  gen- 
eral movements  of  the  century,  now  being  genuinely  classical, 
now  classical-scientific,  but  never  becoming  so  narrowly 
classical  as  some  of  the  older  schools.  Its  history  forbade 
that.  As  preparation  for  higher  schools  besides  the  typical 
college  became  necessary  through  the  growth  and  culturizing 
of  new  interests,  it  carried  differentiation  still  further.  To- 
day in  its  best  state  it  is  merely  a  private  high  school,11  having 

9  See  Chapter  XVIII. 

10  One  touch  of  method  is  given  in  the  illustration  above. 

11  Roth  of  the  forms  of  secondary  education  that  have  been  discussed, 
the  District  School  and  the  Academy,  owed  allegiance  to.  and  were  in- 
fluenced and  promoted  by,  both  the  state  and  private  individuals.  The 
academy  often  owed  allegiance  also  to  the  church.  The  district  school 
had  often  had  a  minister  as  a  leading,  or  even  the  leading,  spirit  on 
its  committee  of  supervision.  Each  was,  in  one  degree  or  another,  a 
part  of  a  public  school  system.  They  took  the  place  of  the  old  gram- 
mar school,  though  the  church  influence  was  smaller  in  them  than  in 
the  older  institution. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  331 

a  broad  program  of  studies  out  of  which  have  crystallized  vari- 
ous curricula. 

A  new  school, —  an  indigenous  school. —  The  latest  addition 
to  our  secondary  school  agencies  has  marks  of  greater  per- 
manence than  any  of  its  predecessors  enjoyed,  for  its  roots 
are  in  the  soil.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  academy,  the 
new  school  has  grown  out  of  the  life  of  the  people,  and  that 
too  since  they  have  become  acclimated  and  have  developed  a 
national  tone.  It  has,  therefore,  come  nearer  the  heart  of  the 
people  than  any  organized  educational  agency  except  the 
primary  school.  There  was  needed  a  school  that  should  repre- 
sent the  genius  of  the  people,  embody  their  ideals,  and  be  so 
responsive  to  their  needs,  even  their  moods,  that  it  would  never 
become  fossilized  in  matter  or  method,  nor  so  conservative  and 
slow-moving  that  it  would  not  keep  pace,  within  reasonable 
limits,  with  progress  in  educational  ideas  and  in  intellectual 
and  industrial  life. 

The  High  School  —  General  characteristics. —  The  High 
School  met  these  conditions.  It  began  in  1821,  in  Boston. 
The  manner  of  its  coming  was  in  itself  significant.  In  the 
first  place,  it  was  an  extension  upward  from  the  elementary 
education  of  the  period.  It  was  thus  an  outgrowth  of  the 
popular  education  that  was  so  auspiciously  started  by  the  laws 
of  1642  and  1647.  In  the  second  place,  it  was  a  local  school 
confined  to  narrow  limits  of  territory.  In  the  third  place  it 
was  introduced  to  meet  special  needs.  The  secondary  schools 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  first  high  school,  the  former  Latin  gram- 
mar schools,  were  evidently  not  giving  adequate  preparation 
for  the  new  professions  and  occupations  that  were  rising. 
The  aims  of  the  High  School,  as  formulated  by  its  promoters, 
show  this.  It  was  established  to  "  qualify  by  mental  discipline 
to  fill  usefully  and  respectably  public  and  private  stations  for 
which  the  facilities  at  hand  do  not  qualify."  In  the  fourth 
place  its  initial  curriculum  marked  it  as  a  school  meeting  new 
conditions  and  responding  to  the  influences  of  the  times.  It 
offered  a  three-year  curriculum  at  first,  with  the  following 
studies:  —  English,  history  (ancient,  modern,  American), 
geography,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  plane  trigonometry 
and  applications  (navigation,  surveying,  etc.),  natural,  moral, 


332  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

and  political  philosophy,  and  astronomy.  In  the  fifth  place, 
it  was  a  public  school,  a  product  of  the  idea  that  the  state  is 
responsible  for  popular  education,  because  it  must,  in  obedience 
to  the  laws  of  self  preservation  and  advancement,  see  to  it  that 
its  life  and  ideals  are  perpetuated.  The  trend  in  this  direction 
had  long  been  seen  and  felt.  We  can  trace  it  back  to  the  six- 
teenth century,  as  already  shown,  but  this  applied  to  elementary 
education.  For  the  state  to  undertake  popular  secondary  edu- 
cation and  make  it  free  to  all  was  a  thought  of  slower  growth. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  a  movement  that  has  had  a  much 
more  extended  development  here  than  abroad.12 

This  first  high  school  was  called  the  English  Classical 
School,  but  almost  immediately  it  came  to  be  known  as  the 
English  High  School,  and  has  kept  the  name. 

Growth  of  the  high  school  idea. —  The  high  school  idea 
worked  slowly.  Communities  had  to  persuade  themselves  that 
the  idea  was  a  wise  one,  and  had  to  accustom  themselves  to  it. 
A  quarter  of  a  century  elapsed  before  many  schools  were  estab- 
lished. But  the  thought  of  public  control  was  deepening  and 
had  immense  vitality.  The  Dartmouth  College  case  showed 
conclusively  how  much  voice  the  public  had  in  endowed  institu- 
tions that  hitherto  had  supplied  secondary  education.  From 
1850  on  high  schools  multiplied  rapidly  and  gave  very  definite 
promise  of  making  secondary  education  universal.13 

Relations  to  the  college. —  Other  secondary  schools  had 
been  so  closely  connected  with  the  college  that  it  was  quite 
natural  that  the  new  school  also  should  take  on  college  rela- 
tions, and  that  the  academies,  the  mainstay  and  feeders  of 
higher  education,  should  decline.14  Early  high  schools  there- 
fore became  preparatory  schools,  and,  in  consonance  with  the 
classical  revival  of  the  New  Humanism,  which  was  a  world 
force,  they  made  the  classics  the  central  feature  of  their  cur- 
ricula. 

12  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  other  nations  have  gone  to  great  lengths 
in  establishing  and  promoting  secondary  education,  but  it  is  given  to 
the  people  conditionally.  It  carries  with  it  tuition  fees,  and  so  limits 
its  application. 

13  Some  states  were  especially  forward  and  enterprising  in  this  move- 
ment.    Some  were  as  notably  backward. 

14  Due  in  part  to  the  rise  of  the  new  school. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  333 

Broadening  of  the  curriculum. —  But  the  real  idea  and  kin- 
dred ideas  were  rousing  for  a  final  effort  to  establish  them- 
selves firmly  and  influentially  in  the  schools.  In  the  second 
half  of  the  century,  when  free  secondary  education  was  spread- 
ing at  a  more  rapid  pace,  they  completely  changed  the  character 
of  the  high  school  curriculum.  This  change  was  seen  in  pro- 
grams of  the  sixties,15  though  of  course  not  in  its  full  force. 
It  was  necessary  to  soften  and  overcome  the  prejudice  of 
classical  circles  against  the  new,  in  order  to  give  these  studies 
due  importance  in  the  program.  It  was  necessary  also  to 
train  teachers  and  to  develop  the  machinery  and  method  for 
making  the  studies  duly  effective.  It  took  some  time,  there- 
fore, to  establish  the  new  subjects  as  essentials  for  every  edu- 
cated person  both  from  the  point  of  view  of  information  and 
from  that  of  training  and  culture.15  To  a  hasty  observer  re- 
sults might  easily  have  appeared  superficial,  in  the  early  days. 
For  instance,  it  was  the  era  of  the  14-weeks  text-book  in  sci- 
ence. But  in  reality  there  was  deep  significance  in  it  all. 
Eventually  the  new  made  its  place  secure  and  took  precedence 
over  the  old,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  present-day  pro- 
grams with  older  ones.10 

Differentiation  in  the  high  school. —  In  the  last  decades  of 
the  century  a  process  of  differentiation  began  in  our  high 
schools  in  two  different  directions.  First,  life  had  become 
more    specialized   and    new   professions    and    industries    had 

15  The  New  Haven  High  School  in  1867  offered  a  3-year  curriculum 
in  which  were  taught  English,  Latin,  Greek,  French,  German,  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  book-keeping,  physical  geography, 
physiology  (lectures),  natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  natural  history, 
household  science,  rhetoric,  history  (ancient,  modern,  American), 
geography,  civics. 

The  Cincinnati  high  school  in  a  4-year  curriculum  offered  English, 
German,  French,  Latin,  Greek,  elementary  and  advanced  algebra,  geom- 
etry, plane  trigonometry,  surveying,  history  (outlines),  anatomy  and 
physiology,  natural  philosophy  and  astronomy,  chemistry,  botany,  ge- 
ology, mental  and  moral  science,  civics,  drawing,  pedagogics.  The  latter 
subject  indicates  a  new  office  for  the  high  school,  that  of  training 
teachers.  The  idea  has  had  some  currency.  As  trained  teachers  were 
too  few  to  supply  all  schools  and  many  high  school  graduates  entered 
immediately  upon  the  work  of  teaching,  a  real  service  was  rendered 
through  this  plan,  where  the  high  school  normal  work  was  anything 
more  than  perfunctory. 

16  See  appendix  of  Chapter  XXIII  for  recent  programs. 


334  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

sprung  up.  Wider  preparation  was  therefore  required  for 
more  lines  of  work  than  formerly, —  for  commerce,  for  tech- 
nical pursuits,  for  industrial  life,  for  education.  A  new 
preparation  was  essential  for  older  professions  and  occupations. 
More  attention  had  to  be  given  to  individual  needs  and  prefer- 
ences. From  all  these  circumstances  the  high  schools  were 
obliged  to  offer,  in  place  of  a  single  uniform  curriculum,  sev- 
eral parallel  curricula  suited  to  meet  the  entrance  requirements 
of  professional  schools,  or  adapted  to  more  immediate  ends. 
The  larger  schools  by  allowing  the  elective  principle  to  enter  in 
one  degree  or  another  were  able  to  meet  group  needs  and  in- 
dividual needs  in  still  greater  detail.17 

Second,  differentiation  came  not  merely  in  studies  and  cur- 
ricula, but  in  schools,  in  response  to  modifications  in  educa- 
tional ideals  and  changes  in  conditions  of  life, —  the  former 
dependent  on  the  latter. 

Manual  training  departments. —  This  differentiation  had  to 
do,  first,  with  altered  circumstances  as  to  manual  work  and 
with  the  transformation  of  ideas  and  ideals  here,  seen  in  the 
introduction  of  manual  training  into  the  curriculum.  The 
causes  and  conditions  that  led  to  the  change  are  well  known. 
This  is  not  the  place  to  follow  in  detail  the  evolution  of  special 
subjects  like  this.  A  volume  could  easily  be  given  to  it.  The 
change  from  a  general  and  inclusive  type  of  life  to  one  that  is 
specialized  and  exclusive,  and  the  growth  of  city  populations, 
were  primarily  responsible  for  the  new  thought  as  to  manual 
work,  so  far  as  the  introduction  of  manual  training  into  schools 
was  concerned.  The  training  once  supplied  naturally  by  the 
multum-in-parvo  country  or  village  life  must  now  be  supplied 
artificially.  As  natural  and  spontaneous  education  declines, 
artificial  education  advances ;  otherwise  efficiency  must  be  low- 
ered. The  compensation  in  this  case  is  not  voluntary,  but 
forced.     Again,   the   development   of   technical   pursuits   and 

17  In  fact  graduation  from  a  high  school  generally  came  to  be  based 
on  completing  so  many  units  of  work,  though  under  certain  limitations 
of  choice  that  practically  gave  a  uniform  core  of  subjects  as  a  basis. 
By  general  opinion  this  core  consisted  of  quotas  of  language  and  litera- 
ture, science,  history,  and  mathematics,  in  addition  to  music,  drawing, 
and  physical  training.  The  prescription  therefore  was  not  specific  but 
general,  allowing  considerable  opportunity  for  choice. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  335 

professions,  due  to  conditions  described  in  previous  chapters, 
emphasized  the  need  of  skilled  manual  work,  and  this  also  fos- 
tered the  idea  of  manual  training.  The  first  emphasis,  how- 
ever, was  on  manual.  Then,  out  of  the  heat  of  discussion  and 
the  conflict  attending  so  striking  a  movement  to  modernize  the 
curriculum,18  came  the  thought  of  an  educational  purpose. 
The  study  of  physiological  psychology  showed  the  relation  of 
manual  training  to  brain  culture, —  that  such  work  brings  into 
function  brain  tracts  otherwise  neglected.19  Associational  psy- 
chology suggested  and  enforced  the  idea  that,  by  correlating 
manual  training  with  other  subjects,  knowledge  is  related  and 
clarified,  thus  giving  added  interest  in,  and  insight  into,  the 
other  branches  of  the  curriculum.  The  incidence  of  thought 
was  now  on  training;  this  idea  took  precedence  over  the  first. 
Finally  came  the  culture  idea.  Manual  training  thus  came  to 
concern  itself  with  form  as  well  as  matter,  with  meaning  as 
well  as  substance.  The  subject  embraces  all  work  of  hand  and 
eye  combined,  bringing  into  action,  and  thus  contributing  to 
the  development  of,  all  mental  powers,  in  one  degree  or 
another.  It  involves,  in  its  widest  application,  the  work  of 
several  schools, —  the  trade  school,  the  school  of  mechanic 
arts,  and  the  school  of  fine  arts, —  as  well  as  the  varied  manual 
work  that  has  come  into  the  common  school  curriculum.  An 
art  student,  whether  concerned  with  fine  arts  or  mechanic 
arts,  becomes  a  stronger  and  finer  student  and  a  finer  work- 
man, if  he  knows  the  history  of  his  art  and  the  correlations 
of  his  art,  literary,  esthetic,  and  scientific,  i.  e.,  knows  more 
than  the  bare  technique  of  his  calling.  A  manual  training  cur- 
riculum might  therefore  easily  be  broadened  and  become  a  cul- 
ture curriculum  of  the  highest  type. 

Grading  of  manual  training. —  Now  as  history  or  science  or 
geography  may  be  and  must  be  graded  to  suit  all  ages  and  thus 
fulfil  their  place  and  relations  in  schools  of  all  grades,  so 
manual  training  has  an  elementary  school  side  and  a  secondary 
school  side,  and  it  follows  the  student  yet  beyond.     Particu- 

18  The  feelings  of  would-be  educators  in  this  instance  are  compar- 
able with  those  which  came  on  the  invasion  of  the  fifteenth  century 
curriculum  by  new  subjects.     See  Chapter  XIV. 

19  Just  as  physical  culture  has  been  enhanced  by  the  same  study. 


336  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

larly  does  manual  training  have  great  possibilities  in  the  sec- 
ondary school,  if  the  conditions  which  have  been  mentioned 
are  to  be  fulfilled  there.  It  appeals  to  adolescents,  for  they 
love  art  and  history  and  great  ideas ;  they  are  full  of  activity 
and  like  constructive  work,  whether  intellectual  or  physical. 

A  Manual  Training  High  School. —  A  belief  that  such  sub- 
jects keep  up  interest  in  school  work  and  tempt  pupils  to  pro- 
long their  education,  added  to  a  confidence  in  the  training- 
value  and  practical  value  of  the  new  subject,  led  to  the  found- 
ing not  of  a  new  school,  but  a  new  type  of  the  new  school  we 
are  considering,  the  manual  training  high  school,  which  has 
had  a  striking  growth  in  some  of  our  large  cities.  The  idea 
was  too  large  to  be  worked  out  adequately  as  an  attachment  of 
existing  high  schools.  It  required  a  separate  school  to  give 
a  typical  development.  Manual  training  could,  of  course,  be 
made  a  branch  of  the  regular  high  school  work,  and  this  was 
frequently  done  with  beneficial  results.  In  fact,  if  the  subject 
is  of  any  value,  it  has  a  necessary  relation  to  all  schools,  to 
give  a  proper  outlook  on  life  and  a  kind  of  practical  training 
that  is  much  needed.  In  addition  it  enhances  the  value  of 
other  studies.  But,  with  all  this,  the  separate  school  had  a 
place,  to  show  the  full  meaning  and  value  of  the  subject  and 
to  give  a  training  needed  by  certain  classes  in  our  highly  dif- 
ferentiated communities.  In  effect  it  brought  into  school  life  a 
new  culture  curriculum,  of  great  possibilities  or  very  narrow 
possibilities,  according  to  the  spirit  in  which  it  was  carried  out. 
It  was  a  peculiarly  fitting  curriculum  for  a  high  school,  which 
is  a  finishing  school  for  so  many.  There  was  needed  an  oppor- 
tunity for  those  who  chose  mechanical  pursuits  to  equip  them- 
selves for  their  work,  not  by  learning  their  trades  or  profes- 
sions in  the  sense  of  becoming  technically  proficient  in  them, 
for  that  must  come  elsewhere,  but  by  cultivating  them.  This 
cultivating  was  to  come  not  through  a  narrow  curriculum,  but 
by  one  broad  enough  to  give  a  larger  culture  that  would  lead 
men  to  work  more  intelligently,  more  appreciatively,  more 
interestedly,  and  more  accurately,  and  give  larger  play  to  their 
minds  in  many  directions.20     A  curriculum  or  two  will  give 

20  It  is  unfortunate  that  culture  has  in  the  minds  of  many  come  to 
signify  something  that  is  the  antithesis  of  the  practical.     Culture  in 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  337 

some  idea  of  what  was  accomplished  in  the  new  directions,  how 
far  the  manual  training  high  school  ran  parallel  with  the  older 
types  of  high  school,  and  what  remained  to  be  done  to  give  it 
more  purpose  and  solidarity.21 

High  School  of  Commerce  —  Its  philosophy. —  Like  the 
arts  commercial  pursuits  also  came  to  demand  specialized  train- 
ing. In  early  days  commerce  was  simple,  unorganized,  empiric 
cal,  personal ;  ideals  were  narrow,  crude,  individual ;  competi- 
tion was  general,  long-ranged,  inarticulate,  shrewd.  Any  man 
with  ordinary  gifts  and  good  management  could  succeed.  But 
now  business  began  to  be  organized,  scientific,  impersonal ; 
ideals  were  becoming  broader,  though  still  narrow  and  one- 
sided, polished,  though  not  refined,  corporate;  competition  was 
developing  into  something  minutely  particular,  close-ranged,  ar- 
ticulate, keen,  cruel,  predatory.  Commerce  therefore  demanded 
more  than  a  general  training.  It  demanded  also  more  than  a 
technical  business  curriculum,  which  deals  with  little  more  than 
the  forms  and  mechanics  of  business. 

Value  of  technical  training  for  business  ideals. —  But  there 
was  something  more  important  than  all  this.  Trade  had  be- 
come an  institution.  To  serve  it  successfully,  to  turn  it  from 
doubtful  and  unworthy  tendencies  that  were  coming  in,  and 
toward  a  realization  of  its  best,  one  must  know  its  character- 
istics, its  departments,  its  laws  and  codes,  its  principles  and 
practice.  No  one  could  know  it  all  in  detail,  but  he  must,  in 
addition  to  a  general  knowledge,  familiarize  himself  minutely 
with  his  department.  He  must  know  sources  and  resources, 
routes  hither  and  yon,  formulae  of  production,  economies  of 
handling,  possibilities  of  by-products,  means  of  improvement, 
laws  of  growth,  possibilities  of  invention, —  not  that  one  could 
know  it  all  intimately,  but  he  must  know  it  all  in  the  large  and 
be  able  to  command  it  all,  and  see  that  it  was  forthcoming. 
Success  might  depend  on  any  one  of  these  things.  A  mill  saved 
by  some  economy  might  turn  the  tide ;  a  route  better  by  a  few 

the  true  sense  gives  power  to  see,  comprehend,  and  appreciate  relations, 
and  this  is  the  essence  of  practicality.  Culture  is  in  no  way  synonymous 
with  knowledge. 

21  See  Appendix  to  Chapter  XXIII. 

Here  again  we  must  note  the  rise  of  vocational  studies  and  the  pros- 
pect of  more  specialized  vocational  high  schools.     See  also  Chapter  XIX. 


33S  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

miles,  or  quicker  by  a  few  hours,  might  be  a  pivotal  matter.  A 
scientific  study  of  economics  might  obviate  an  advance  in 
freight  rates.  All  this  meant  that  commerce  demanded  experts 
who  knew  not  mere  forms,  but  meanings  and  relations,  the 
inner  springs  and  principles  of  motion.  A  broad  culture  cur- 
riculum in  commercial  science, —  commercial  chemistry, 
physics,  history,  geography,  psychology,  law, —  was  necessary 
to  train  the  man  of  business.  There  was  thus  room  for  both 
a  secondary  and  a  tertiary  curriculum.  So  came  high  schools 
of  commerce  to  join  the  specialized  schools.  They  had  small 
development,  as  yet,  but  found  a  place  in  the  largest  centers.22 

Social  reasons  for  commercial  education. —  There  are,  how- 
ever, other  reasons  why  commerce  should  demand  a  broad  cul- 
ture as  a  preparation  for  serving  it.  If  trade  or  commerce  is 
an  institution,  as  it  ought  to  be,  it  must  develop  the  character- 
istics of  an  institution,  the  chief  of  which  is  service.  Service 
is  fundamental  in  all  institutions  and  other  characteristics  grow 
out  of  it.  For  that  they  are  born ;  by  that  they  grow.  Com- 
merce has  primarily  no  rights, —  at  any  rate  no  monopolistic 
right  with  natural  resources ;  no  institution  or  individual  has ; 
it  has  a  steward-right  or  rent-right  only.  Its  typical  function 
is  as  an  intermediary  between  sources  and  public,  and  it  has  a 
right  to  legitimate  compensation  and  rewards  for  that  service, 
commensurate  with  its  ability  and  efforts,  but  correlative  with 
the  compensation  and  rewards  accorded  other  institutions,  no 
more.     Contrary  ideas  are  based  on  feudal  civilization. 

Now  it  is  this  side  of  commercial  life  that  a  specialized  study 
of  business  is  calculated  to  develop.  There  is  scope  here  for 
adolescent  inspiration.  There  is  room  for  broad  secondary 
courses  and  curricula  and  for  broader  and  more  detailed  uni- 
versity courses. 

Rise  of  the  Agricultural  High  School. —  One  more  line  of 
specialization  calls  for  notice.  It  has  to  do  with  the  funda- 
mental profession  of  all, —  agriculture.  In  the  early  stages  of 
development  in  our  country  crude  methods  and  a  natural 
science  of  agriculture  brought  sufficient  returns  and  equalized 
opportunities  and  fortunes  in  a  democracy  of  agriculturists. 

22  See  Appendix  of  Chapter  XXIII  for  the  curriculum  of  a  typical 
commercial  high  school. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  339 

Land  was  abundant  and  stretched  limitlessly  beyond  current 
needs.  Overflow  was  provided  for  without  intensifying  culti- 
vation. But  conditions  changed.  Population  pressed  upon 
natural  agricultural  resources,  though  not  so  seriously  as  to 
rule  out  entirely  the  old  state  of  agriculture.  Finally  com- 
pensation in  the  net  returns  for  expenditure  of  capital  and 
effort  in  agriculture  was  not  sufficient,  when  compared  with 
inducements  in  other  directions,  to  insure  an  adequate  develop- 
ment of  natural  agricultural  resources.  It  was  not  sufficient  to 
"  keep  up  the  stock,"  to  say  nothing  of  advance.  It  was  thus 
necessary  that  agricultural  life  should  hold  out  larger  induce- 
ments, larger  commercial  opportunities.  With  it  all,  there 
was  an  urgent  call  for  surplus  products  to  supply  other  popu- 
lations that  pressed  too  closely  on  their  own  sources  of  sup- 
ply. These  were  technical  reasons  for  giving  more  attention  to 
agricultural  interests.  Interwoven  with  them  were  reasons 
suggested  by  the  palpable  decline  in  the  quality  of  country  life 
that  had  its  ground  in  the  same  general  conditions  that  have 
been  described.  Agriculture  had  fallen  from  its  once  com- 
manding position  and  had  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  one  of 
the  lower  and  more  uncultured  vocations.  Education  and 
talent  had  sought  other  fields,  and  agriculture  had  come  to  be 
regarded  as  the  haven  of  the  common  people,  who  were  thus 
in  a  way  isolated  by  certain  very  artificial  distinctions.  A  kind 
of  caste  had  grown  up. 

A  change  in  the  status  of  agriculture. —  This  was  not  only 
wrong,  but  dangerous  for  the  future  of  agriculture.  A  change 
was  needed.  The  lack  of  motif  must  be  remedied.  The  status 
and  personnel  of  country  life  must  be  improved.  The  profes- 
sion of  agriculture  must  again  reach  its  commanding  position 
as  the  leading  vocation,  attractive  and  stimulating  to  the  high- 
est talent,  fostered  by  a  very  definite  and  insistent  education 
and  training,  and  distinguished  for  culture.  The  change  began, 
partly  through  the  influences  mentioned  above.  Agriculture 
was  coming  into  its  own. 

A  science  of  agriculture. —  Every  human  interest,  of  itself, 
inevitably  becomes  an  object  of  exploration  and  study,  first 
by  the  few,  then  by  the  many.  It  accumulates  a  body  of 
experience  which  must  be  handed  on.    As  it  makes  itself  a 


340  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

matter  of  serious  study,  it  discloses  its  laws  and  becomes  organ- 
ized. It  then  becomes  scientific  and  so  more  than  ever  an 
object  of  devotion  for  students.  All  this  and  something  more 
awakened  a  new  attitude  toward  agriculture.  Both  justice  and 
sentiment  on  the  part  of  thoughtful  observers  and  students  of 
national  opportunities  led  to  the  adoption  of  means  for  encour- 
aging and  promoting  such  a  wide-spread  and  important  inter- 
est. What  means  surer  than  education?  Out  of  such  condi- 
tions naturally  came  a  science  of  agriculture  with  its  incentives 
to  study.  Courses  in  agriculture  were  established.  They 
grew ;  they  made  more  courses  necessary ;  they  claimed  a  place 
in  the  common  schools ;  they  made  a  new  high  school  with  a 
new  curriculum. 

Earliest  form  of  agricultural  schools. —  The  earliest  form 
of  agricultural  education  under  public  control  was  the  state 
agricultural  college,  which  from  more  than  one  point  of  view 
might  be  rated  as  a  secondary  school.  It  began  about  i860 
and  was  materially  aided  by  the  general  government  through 
the  "  Morrill  Act "  of  1862.  It  was  still  further  advanced  by 
appropriations  provided  by  the  "  Hatch  Act,"  of  1887,  which 
encouraged  experiments  and  set  free  inventive  genius  of  a  new 
kind.  As  a  rule,  preparation  for  these  schools  was  left  to  the 
regular  high  and  elementary  schools.23  The  high  schools,  with 
their  new  studies  were  able  to  respond  in  a  measure  to  the 
demands.  But  agricultural  studies  must  be  graded  if  they  are 
to  have  a  sound  development.  An  agricultural  secondary 
school  was  the  natural  concomitant  of  the  agricultural  college. 
Here  was  the  vantage  ground  for  the  initiation  of  the  work, 
for  reasons  stated  before  and  needing  no  rehearsal  here.  In 
reality,  the  secondary  school  did  come  first,  for  the  college,  as 
just  indicated,  was  probably  to  be  classed  with  secondary  edu- 
cation. As  the  college  grew  its  secondary  functions  naturally 
fell  to  another  school.  But  the  agricultural  high  school  was 
more  especially  needed  to  give  a  culture  course  to  the  majority 
of  intending  agriculturists  who  go  no  further  in  school  life. 
It  began  its  mission  in  the  West  near  the  end  of  the  century. 

23  It  need  not  be  surprising  that  elementary  schools  are  mentioned 
here,  for  in  some  instances  admission  requirements  had  to  be  low  to 
meet  the  new  conditons. 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  341 

It  has  the  same  claim  for  recognition  as  the  manual  training 
high  school  or  the  commercial  high  school,  and  it  is  as  logical 
a  development  as  they. 

Country  life  winning. —  Inventions  that  have  improved 
means  of  communication  and  given  better  opportunities  for  cul- 
ture are  fast  doing  away  with  country  isolation, —  bringing  city 
and  country  together.  Country  life  is  winning  back  its  old 
charm.  Scientific  agriculture,  with  its  opportunities  for  inven- 
tion and  for  creating  and  propagating  new  species,  and  with 
its  incitement  to  new  records,  gives  still  further  attractiveness 
to  that  life  and  makes  it  a  worthier  object  of  high  talent.  This 
is  a  result  in  part  of  the  movement  that  has  given  the  agricul- 
tural high  school.  May  it  not  be  in  part  a  cause  of  that 
school  ? 2i 

Method. —  In  these  various  forms  of  the  High  School, 
method  in  general  followed  the  trend  of  the  period  described 
in  the  last  chapter.  Method  determines  the  value  of  the  cur- 
riculum. It  is  the  inner  spirit  of  the  educational  process.  The 
High  School,  being  a  new  institution  and  hence  less  hampered 
by  tradition  than  older  secondary  schools,  had  a  fairer  oppor- 
tunity than  the  latter  for  initiative  in  method.  That  it  did  not 
seem  to  respond  to  the  opportunity  is  perhaps  a  sign  of  its 
newness.  It  was  so  occupied  with  getting  its  new  forms  started 
that  for  a  time  at  least  it  gave  less  thought  to  method  and  dis- 
played less  care  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  than  older  sec- 
ondary schools,  especially  the  secondary  schools  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe.  But  beneath  all  this  was  the  fundamental 
conservatism  of  secondary  education  that  is  apparent  from  the 
facts  embodied  in  the  last  chapters.  During  the  last  years  of 
the  period,  however,  method  began  to  attract  more  earnest  care 
and  thought  and  promised  a  genuine  renaissance. 

Summary. —  The  evolution  of  secondary  education  in  the 
United  States  was  a  rapid  and  striking  one.  As  we  follow  its 
course  we  find  five  stages: —  I.  The  Grammar  School  period. 

2.  The  District  School  with  its  secondary  school  attachments. 

3.  The  Academy  period.     4.  The  High  School  period.     5.  The 

24  A  typical  curriculum  of  this  school  is  furnished  by  an  agricultural 
high  school  in  a  typical  agricultural  state.  See  Appendix  to  Chapter 
XXIII. 


342  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

period  of  differentiated  high  schools  and  high  school  curricula. 
The  spontaneity  and  unconventionality  of  its  growth,  the  free- 
dom with  which  it  adapted  itself  to  different  needs  and  condi- 
tions, its  purpose  to  serve  the  public,  and  its  apparent  lack  of 
system  and  internal  organization  are  perhaps  the  most  con- 
spicuous characteristics  of  the  American  secondary  school  up 
to  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


XXII 

A   REVIEW   OF  THE  EVOLUTION   OF   SECONDARY   EDUCATION   FROM 

DIFFERENT   VIEW-POINTS 

It  will  be  of  interest  here  to  sum  up  and  classify  some  of  the 
main  facts  as  to  secondary  education  that  we  have  discovered 
as  we  have  followed  its  development  through  various  epochs, 
and  to  make  some  generalizations  that  will  form  a  perspective 
and  be  of  value  in  a  discussion  of  secondary  school  interests. 

Grading  of  education. —  First  then,  education,  through  the 
influences  which  have  been  described  in  the  different  chapters, 
has  become  significantly  differentiated  into  I,  primary  educa- 
tion ;  2,  secondary  education ;  3,  higher  education,  which  have 
met  us  everywhere  since  the  Greek  people  developed  a  graded 
education. 

Aims,  with  examples. —  Again,  the  aims  of  education  have 
been  rather  clearly  differentiated  and  embodied  in  several  school 
types:  —  1.  The  cultural,  as  seen  in  the  later  Greek  schools 
and  their  Roman  counterparts,  in  a  few  great  schools  of  the 
early  Christian  centuries,  in  the  universities,  and  their  feeders 
inside  and  outside,  the  typical  classical  schools  of  the  Renais- 
sance and  later  times,  and  finally  in  the  modern  Gymnasium  of 
Germany,  the  Lycee  of  France,  the  Great  Public  School  of 
Great  Britain,  and  the  classical  High  School  of  America. 
2.  The  practical,  vocational,  or  industrial,  represented  by  the 
more  characteristic  sophist  schools,  by  a  certain  type  of  the 
Roman  rhetorical  school,  by  the  parish  schools  in  which  the 
early  Church  taught  its  followers  the  rudiments  of  agriculture 
with  other  rudiments,  in  a  somewhat  different  way  and  on  a 
different  plane  by  the  arithmetic  schools  of  the  guilds  and  the 
modernized  English  schools  of  the  fifteenth  century  *  that  were 
forerunners  of  the  modern  commercial  school,  and,  in  the  last 

lIt  will  be  remembered  that  these  schools   introduced  commercial 
subjects  that  scandalized  the  Latinists. 

343 


344  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

decades,  by  industrial  and  trade  secondary  schools  in  different 
countries.  3.  The  technical,  illustrated  by  the  various  technical 
schools  of  Europe  and  America.  4.  The  professional,  best 
exemplified  by  the  grammar  and  rhetorical  schools  of  old 
Greece  and  Rome  that  trained  the  orator,  by  the  early  uni- 
versity faculties  of  law  and  theology  that  trained  members  of 
the  clerical  profession  for  their  broad  and  commanding  places 
in  society,  by  the  same  and  additional  faculties  of  the  modern 
university,  and  by  specialized  professional  schools  of  to-day. 

The  cultural  type  most  prominent. —  Till  the  eighteenth 
century  the  industrial  type  was  not  largely  represented  in  the 
schools.  Industrial  life  was  as  yet  simple  and  unorganized,  and 
rarely  felt  the  need  of  specific  preparation  through  organized 
education.  But,  as  we  have  just  seen,  both  primary  and  sec- 
ondary education,  secondary  more  than  primary,  had  entered 
the  field  of  vocational  education  with  considerable  effect.2 
On  the  other  hand,  schools  of  the  cultural  type  were  promi- 
nent and  were  highly  organized  and  very  effective. 

The  real  movement. —  From  the  eighteenth  century  on  the 
secondary  school  very  logically,  but  very  gradually,  devel- 
oped forms  and  programs  that  had  been  objects  of  less  con- 
cern before.  In  the  struggle  for  a  greater  freedom  the  first 
notable  epoch  is  that  which  culminated  in  the  real-schule  move- 
ment of  the  early  eighteenth  century,  which  quickly  fell  away 
before  a  revived  cultural  movement  represented  by  the  New 
Humanism,  less  formal  than  the  old  humanism,  but  scarcely 
less  abstract.  The  new  movement,  however,  was  not  dead.  It 
reappeared  in  stronger  form  and  under  more  favorable  circum- 
stances in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Then  the 
line  of  cleavage  became  definite  and  decisive.  The  two  ideas, 
the  cultural  and  practical,  were  embodied  in  two  distinct  series 
of  schools,  or  in  separate  departments  in  the  same  school. 

Cleavage  between  classical  and  scientific  aims. —  But  the 
one,  the  practical,  always  tended  toward  the  cultural,  for  all 
studies  eventually  become  culturized,  if  they  are  true  to  their 
own  implications ;  the  other,  the  cultural,  pari  passu,  was  as 
constantly  forcing  itself,  or  being  forced,  to  become  more  con- 

2  It  may  be  questioned  whether,  for  the  times,  as  much  attention  was 
not  given  to  vocational  training  as  at  present. 


A  REVIEW  AND  A  FORECAST  345 

crete  and  practical.  During  the  last  fifty  years  the  process  has 
been  greatly  accelerated  and  differentiation  into  several  prac- 
tical-cultural types  has  been  pronounced.  Another  and  higher 
humanism  has  appeared. 

Ideals. —  During  the  period  under  review  the  secondary 
school  has  had  a  wonderful  history.  From  epoch  to  epoch  we 
have  noted  new  ideas,  methods,  means  and  ends,  but  the  school 
has  never  lost  its  identity.  Plans  and  ideals,  however,  have 
changed  through  natural  growth  and  have  been  modified  by 
artificial  pressure.  Ideals  are  fundamental.  Plans  are  sub- 
servient to  them.  Ideals  are  especially  interesting  when  viewed 
in  historical  succession.  The  next  step,  therefore,  will  be  to 
show  this  succession  by  arranging  the  ideals  in  a  series  with 
brief  comments  as  to  their  significance.     We  have  then : 

1.  The  tribal  ideal,  under  which  the  tribe  (or  later,  when 
the  larger  political  unit  was  developed,  the  state),  was  every- 
thing and  the  individual  nothing.  Progress  depended  upon  the 
will  of  the  whole  body.  There  was  no  individual  initiative,  no 
opportunity  for  individuals  to  shoot  ahead  by  the  inspiration  of 
genius  and  lead  the  way.  The  chances  for  advance  were  there- 
fore as  one  to  a  thousand.  It  was  a  static  ideal.  Here  rote- 
learning  had  its  birth. 

2.  The  civic  ideal,  under  which  the  state  regulated  educa- 
tion for  its  own  well-being,  but  gave  the  individual  large  scope. 

3.  The  individual  ideal  that  made  individual  development 
the  central  motive,  thus  creating  a  dynamic  state  of  society. 
In  its  extreme  form  it  made  the  individual  everything  and  the 
state  nothing.     Hence  the  state  fell. 

The  last  two  ideals  were  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  both 
the  Greek  and  the  Roman  state. 

4.  The  institutional  ideal,  in  which  an  institution  was 
substituted  for  state  influence.  In  general  it  was  the  counter- 
part of  1 ;  in  a  special  and  very  limited  application  it  was  the 
counterpart  of  2. 

5.  A  psychologic  ideal,  under  which  men  devoted  them- 
selves most  intensively  to  the  development  of  mental  acumen  by 
a  single  subject.     It  served  as  a  transition  from  4  to  6. 

6.  The  humanistic  ideal,  which  began  in  the  Renaissance 
period,  but  flourished  more  typically  in  the  new  humanistic 


346  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

period  that  followed.  It  involved  strict  training  in  the  ele- 
ments of  great  subjects  that  represented  the  essence  of  past 
culture  and  art ;  it  was  calculated  to  set  the  spirit  free  for  the 
enjoyment  of  the  best  of  past  acquisition,  and  beyond  this,  to 
stimulate  creative  genius.  At  its  best  it  was  a  genuine  incentive 
to  thought  and  enterprise  in  a  rich,  though  somewhat  circum- 
scribed field, —  a  great  field  however  for  the  times.  At  its 
lowest  it  left  one  bound  in  the  bare  forms,  non-spiritualized. 
Altogether  it  made  a  period  of  great  spontaneity  and  achieve- 
ment, and  served  well  as  a  preparation  for  exploration  and 
creation  in  an  unlimited  field.  Perhaps  its  motif  may  be 
best  expressed  by  the  word  appreciation, —  appreciation  of  the 
best  in  literature  and  art  as  a  lift  in  the  development  of  power. 
It  was  at  heart  aristocratic,  and  thus  found  its  most  character- 
istic function  in  class  education. 

7.  A  new  civic  and  individual  ideal,  in  which  two  inspira- 
tional thoughts  coalesced,  an  ideal  that  was  for  modern 
times,  with  their  more  substantial  and  persistent  spirit,  the 
correlate  of  2  and  3.  The  more  steadying,  pervasive,  and  en- 
during force  of  Christianity  gave  it  a  larger  and  deeper  mean- 
ing and  a  new  outlook  and  purpose.  The  ideal,  faithfully  ap- 
plied, brings  the  individual  manifold  power  and  makes  him  an 
effective  user  of  his  power  and  a  useful  and  dependable  citizen. 
The  ideal  halved,  as  has  sometimes  been  true,  leads  to  extreme 
individualism,  from  which  the  world  has  suffered  much.  But, 
taken  in  its  completeness  and  in  its  genuine  form,  this  ideal 
gives  the  best  conditions  for  progress,  a  perfect  balance  of  in- 
dividual and  community  interests.  It  secures  individual  ini- 
tiative, supports  and  strengthens  the  state  organization  that 
makes  acquisition  firm  and  gives  it  value,  and  develops  the  social 
spirit  that  is  the  mainstay  of  society.     At  heart  it  is  democratic. 

8.  Formal  discipline. —  In  the  course  of  this  growth  there 
has  seemed  to  be  an  eighth  ideal  or  partial  ideal  that  held  the 
field  with  others.  It  has  given  a  certain  thoroughness,  exact- 
ness, and  skill  through  rigid  application  and  drill.  Those  who 
were  not  driven  from  the  school,  through  repulsion  for  the 
process,  gained  a  kind  of  greatness  and  power  from  "  continu- 
ous association  with  great  subjects,"  because  they  in  some  way 
caught  the  spirit  from  the  matter,  not  the  form,  and  felt  the 


A  REVIEW  AND  A  FORECAST  347 

stimulus  and  enthusiasm  for  achievement  that  came  with  it. 
This  was  perhaps  in  spite  of  the  ideal  rather  than  because  of  it. 
For  the  average  pupil  it  gave  partial  results  rather  than  full 
development,  form  rather  than  spirit.  In  reality  it  was  only 
a  branch  or  accessory  of  method,  not  an  ideal,  and  yet  it  has 
often  so  occupied  the  forefront  of  attention  that  it  has  seemed 
the  ideal  itself,  rather  than  a  means. 

These  ideals  have  affected  the  secondary  school  more  than 
any  other  part  of  school  life,  because  it  is  the  basal  and  cen- 
tral school,  and  thus  has  been  the  object  of  the  most  intensive 
educational  effort.  In  application  most  of  the  ideals  have 
missed  the  peculiar  element  that  adapts  them  to  pupils  of  the 
secondary  age.  This,  has  been  peculiarly  unfortunate,  because 
adolescence  is  especially  a  period  of  ideals  and  so  is  open  to  the 
influence  of  informing  ideas  more  than  any  other  period. 

Precedence  of  the  secondary  school  in  development  and 
in  civic  functions. —  But  more  interesting  than  this  progres- 
sion of  ideals  is  another  matter  that  has  been  prominent  in  this 
historical  study,  the  relative  position  and  influence  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  in  the  community.  The  secondary  school  was 
the  first  school  to  be  developed.  Primitive  peoples  had  a  defi- 
nite organization  for  accomplishing  a  definite  purpose  for  the 
age  that  corresponds  to  our  secondary  school  age.  It  was  the 
only  organized  form  of  education  at  that  time,  and  was  there- 
fore primary,  not  secondary.  Up  to  this  period  of  life  children 
could  gain  in  a  natural  way,  without  any  special  organization, 
what  information  and  training  were  necessary.  But  the  tribes- 
men saw  in  early  adolescence  certain  characteristics  that  made 
it  the  period  of  definite  instruction  in  an  organized  school.  For 
the  first  time  the  child  could  see  meanings  and  relations  in  more 
than  an  external  way.  For  the  first  time  he  could  be  inspired 
with  devotion  that  would  lead  him  to  defend  and  protect  tribal 
ideals  and  conserve  tribal  life,  even  to  the  point  of  sacrifice. 
He  now  had  the  physique  and  the  mental  power  to  become  a 
safe  factor  in  tribal  interests.  Now  for  the  first  time  he  could 
appreciate  and  preserve  tribal  secrets,  for  he  had  reached  the 
secretive  age.  Hence  the  best  of  the  tribal  inheritances  could 
be  explained,  or  exhibited,  and  given  over  to  him  as  surety. 
The  adolescent  period  is  the  time  for  showing  meanings,  inspir- 


348  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

ing,  instructing,  relating.  The  great  purpose  of  education  in 
this  period  is  to  give  the  adolescent  the  choicest  treasures  of  the 
experience  of  the  race  and  to  initiate  him  into  citizenship. 
Head  men  of  the  tribe  therefore  utilized  it  for  inducting  into 
great  tribal  ideas,  for  developing  great  tribal  interests.  The 
early  tribes  felt  its  opportuneness  in  a  general  way,  felt  it 
intuitively  not  as  a  result  of  specific  reasoning.  They  saw  that 
this  secondary  period  meant  more  to  the  tribe  than  any  other, 
and  that  education  now  was  peculiarly  essential  for  tribal  exist- 
ence. The  following  period,  later  adolescence,  was  the  one  for 
giving  technique  and  firm  mastery,  the  practice  that  made  the 
expert  tribal  citizen,  the  judgment  and  rude  philosophy  that 
made  the  tried  adviser  and  manager.  This  came  from  partici- 
pation in  tribal  life.  The  boy  was  now  a  part  of  the  tribal 
organization.     This  was  his  higher  school. 

Higher  education  in  early  ages. —  The  higher  education  of 
the  ancients  attained  its  greatest  development  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  early  Greek  period  described  in  Chapter  IV.3  It  there 
carried  out  precisely  the  spirit  of  primitive  education,  only  the 
spirit  was  colored  by  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  Greek  life. 
It  was  preceded,  as  in  primitive  education,  by  secondary  in- 
struction in  matters  sacred  to  the  Greek  people. 

Coming  of  the  elementary  school. —  The  first  change  which 
affected  this  general  plan  of  education  was  the  introduction  of 
written  language,  followed  by  the  rapid  growth  of  literature. 
It  therefore  became  necessary  to  master  the  symbols  of  this 
written  language.  This  was  an  initial  and  elementary  process 
and  fell  naturally  and  logically  to  children.  It  was  also  a 
formal  process  and  suggested  organized  educational  forces  to 

3  Higher  education  since  then  has  developed  special  school  forms,  be- 
cause society  has  become  specialized  and  divided.  The  solidarity  of  the 
tribe  gave  place  to  the  looser  organization  of  the  nation.  It  became 
necessary  therefore,  when  the  boy,  from  his  place  in  society,  could  no 
longer  gain  the  training  required  to  fit  him  for  his  duties,  to  establish 
special  schools  for  the  purpose.  Again  participation  in  community  life 
came  to  be  only  partial.  Hence  special  civic  training  in  school  became 
necessary.  Later  centuries  so  magnified  the  special  training  and  mini- 
mized the  general  concrete  civic  training  that  a  gap  was  finally  left  in 
education.  Lately  the  public  conscience  has  been  somewhat  aroused, 
and  attempts  of  various  sorts  have  been  made  to  correlate  school  with 
life. 


A  REVIEW  AND  A  FORECAST  349 

compass  it.  Previously  the  school  of  nature  and  community 
life  sufficed  to  meet  the  educational  needs  of  the  child.  Now 
the  need  of  another  special  school-form  was  felt.  Inevitably 
the  formal  elementary  school  arose. 

Changes  in  the  secondary  school  due  to  the  coming  of  the 
elementary  school. —  But  one  must  be  able  also  to  master 
the  spirit  of  written  language, —  to  feel,  to  appreciate,  and  to 
express  feelingly  and  appreciatively.  This  attitude  toward,  and 
this  kind  of  contact  with,  literature  belongs  to  adolescence. 
Then  for  the  first  time  the  real  appreciation  of  literature  be- 
gins ;  feelings  grow  strong ;  love  of  eloquence  develops.  The 
formal  part  of  language  work  must  be  over,  so  that  youth  may 
come  to  its  real  work.4  The  secondary  school  thus  just  as 
naturally  took  up  this  more  advanced  study  of  language  and 
literature  as  the  lower  school  busied  itself  with  symbols,  the 
early  stage  of  reading,  and  memory  gems. 

Development  of  linguistic  study  —  Rise  of  the  University. 
—  We  may  look  at  it  in  another  way.  As  society  grew  more 
complex  the  qualifications  for  serving  it  became  more  exacting. 
The  value  of  language  power  for  moving  men  and  winning 
place  and  distinction  became  apparent.  The  natural  education 
that  in  early  Greece  and  Rome,  as  well  as  among  primitive  peo- 
ples, was  sufficient  for  preparing  men  to  serve  the  state  could 
no  longer  suffice.  As  the  result  of  the  two  lines  of  influ- 
ence new  and  higher  institutions  arose  specially  calculated 
to  give  the  needed  training  both  general  and  technical,  the 

4  Modern  psychology  added  another  reason  for  assigning  this  work  to 
the  elementary  school  when  it  discovered  that  the  years  just  before 
puberty  are  best  for  form  work. 

The  mastery  of  the  symbols  of  language  was  at  first  the  only  neces- 
sary function  of  the  elementary  school,  though  the  elements  of  number, 
an  entirely  minor  matter,  came  into  the  elementary  school  very  early, 
perhaps  at  the  outset.  (We  should,  however,  here  note  again  the  typical 
Greek  elementary  curriculum.)  Community  life  gave  the  rest,  as  it  al- 
ways had  done.  The  elementary  school  became  a  very  serious  matter. 
Hours  were  long, —  from  daylight  to  dark.  The  child  was  literally  con- 
fined in  the  elementary  school.  Hence  the  natural  mastery  of  the 
facts  of  nature  and  practical  life,  which  tribal  life  had  supplied,  failed. 
To  make  good  this  serious  loss  various  attempts  were  made,  in  succeed- 
ing centuries,  to  bring  the  child  back  to  nature  or  nature  back  to  the 
child.  Da  Feltre,  Rousseau,  Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  and  a  long  line  of 
others  took  up  the  case  of  the  child  and  rescued  school  life  from  the 
bareness  and  abstractness  that  had  so  long  characterized  it. 


350  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

secondary  school  to  give  the  specific  language  foundation, 
the  school  of  oratory  to  supply  the  technical  training.  Thus 
two  new  phases  of  language  study  showed  themselves,  one 
typified  by  the  study  of  grammar  and  composition,  the  other, 
to  which  the  first  led,  by  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  oratory. 
These  are  the  changes  in  education  that  were  going  on  in  the 
Greek  period  discussed  in  Chapter  V.  The  logical  outcome, 
however,  is  seen  more  clearly  in  the  Roman  schools.  The  first 
of  the  new  phases  of  language  study  formalized  the  secondary 
school  and  began  the  tradition  of  formal  discipline;  the  second 
was  higher  or  university  work  as  organized  by  the  classical 
nations. 

New  relations  of  the  secondary  school  and  their  effects. — 
A  great  change  had  thus  come  to  the  secondary  school.  It  was 
wedged  in  between  two  growing  schools.  The  elementary 
school  prepared  the  way  for  it  and  prescribed  for  it  on  the  one 
side ;  the  higher  school  prescribed  and  influenced  on  the  other. 
The  secondary  master  envied  the  teacher  of  rhetoric  and 
trenched  upon  his  province.  The  elementary  school,  with  its 
prescriptions,  and  the  pressure  of  a  more  complex  society 
tended  to  make  the  secondary  school  an  advanced  school  of  let- 
ters with  the  intensive  linguistic  and  rhetorical  courses  that 
have  been  described.  The  secondary  school  was  thus  beginning 
to  lose  its  identity  and  to  give  up  or  minimize  some  of  its  most 
fundamental  characteristics,  though  they  were  entirely  consist- 
ent with  its  new  position.  It  suffered  a  tremendous  loss, 
realization  of  which  finally  set  in  motion  a  whole  series  of  influ- 
ences pressing  for  reform  in  secondary  education. 

The  mediaeval  university  and  its  effect  on  the  secondary 
school. —  But  the  university  of  the  later  mediaeval  centuries 
was  the  crowning  development  in  school  forms.  Its  rise  was 
far  more  momentous  in  the  history  of  education  than  the  rise 
of  universities  in  ancient  Greece.  Its  origin  was  different. 
Its  aims  were  higher,  its  implications  were  greater,  its  influ- 
ence was  farther  reaching  than  anything  that  had  gone  before. 
With  the  development  of  this  later  university  came  another 
episode  in  the  history  of  the  secondary  school.  It  was  not  a 
distinctly  new  episode,  but  it  was  fraught  with  longer  and 
larger  consequences. 


A  REVIEW  AND  A  FORECAST  351 

The  vassalage  of  the  secondary  school. —  With  the  partial 
eclipse  of  education  in  the  first  millennium  of  the  Christian  era 
the  newly  developed  university,  finding  difficulty  in  securing 
students  who  were  prepared  to  take  up  its  courses,  took  the 
natural  alternative  of  preparing  them  itself.  It  thus  had  its 
own  secondary  schools  within  its  own  precincts,  as  seen  in  an 
earlier  chapter.  The  university  also  profoundly  influenced 
secondary  schools  outside,  so  that  they  felt  a  new  stimulus  and 
raised  themselves  to  a  higher  standard.  Henceforth,  by  what- 
ever name  called,  secondary  schools  were  regarded  as,  in  an 
important  sense,  existing  for  the  university.  They  were  pre- 
paratory schools  and  found  their  ends  outside  themselves.  The 
secondary  school  thus  came  into  the  ownership  of  another, 
and  a  long  vassalage  began.  The  university  at  once  proceeded 
to  make  certain  requirements  of  the  secondary  school  for  its 
own  ends. 

A  change  in  the  center  of  interest  in  education. —  After 
a  time  the  university  gave  over  to  the  secondary  school  some  of 
its  own  earlier  tasks  and  imposed  its  methods.  Added  to  this 
external  pressure  was  the  ambition  of  the  secondary  school  to 
get  for  itself  some  of  the  attractive  things  of  university  educa- 
tion and  university  life.  Secondary  teachers  trained  in  the  uni- 
versity liked  the  more  advanced  work  and  method  from  which 
they  had  just  come,  and  secondary  pupils  were  fond  of  imitat- 
ing what  they  could  not  yet  appreciate.5  As  a  result  of  all,  the 
secondary  school  got  beyond  its  depth.  It  was  lumbered  with 
much  that  was  totally  beyond  its  power  and  unsuited  to  its 
characteristics.  The  center  of  interest  had  thus  shifted. 
Originally  it  was  the  adolescent  school,  and  everything  pointed 
toward  it,  led  up  to  it,  or  radiated  from  it.  Now  it  was  the 
university,  and  everything  took  its  emphasis  from  it. 

This  change  in  the  nature  of  the  secondary  school  was  an 
artificial  one,  due  to  hasty  organization  suggested  by  the 
emergency  of  the  moment.  It  was  not  natural,  nor  studied,  nor 
scientific.  Nevertheless  it  impressed  itself  deeply  on  the  school 
organism.     For  six  hundred  years  these  relations  of  the  two 

5  We  may  recall  here  what  Quintilian  said  as  to  fondness  of  gram- 
mar masters  for  appropriating  part  of  the  work  of  the  rhetorical  schools. 
See  Chapter  IX. 


352  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

schools  continued,  becoming  stronger  with  time  and  growth. 

The  first  break  in  the  policy. —  The  real  movement  of  the 
eighteenth  century  first  broke  this  continuity.  It  started  the 
development  of  a  series  of  schools  not  bound  to  the  university, 
though  still  keeping  much  of  the  old  form  and  method.  The 
establishment  of  the  first  high  school  in  America  early  the  next 
century  gave  secondary  education  another  opportunity  for 
initiative,  and  the  outlook  for  a  secondary  school  closely 
related  to  the  people  was  bright.  But  almost  immediately  the 
university  adopted  the  new  school  and  made  it  one  of  the  most 
intense  and  exacting  preparatory  schools  of  all.  There  has 
therefore  been  little  change  in  the  relation  of  secondary  and 
higher  education  till  within  the  last  decades.  The  eighteenth 
century  real  movement  was  significant  only  in  making  a  cleavage 
in  secondary  education,  rather  than  in  modifying  the  relations 
of  existing  schools.6  This  modification  was  left  for  the  late 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  for  the  early  twentieth 
century.  During  these  years  school  agencies,  working  not  so 
much  for  independent  as  for  adaptable  secondary  education, 
have  succeeded  in  modifying  and  reforming  university-high 
school  relations.7  There  have  therefore  been  two  movements, 
one  to  establish  divergent  series  of  schools  and  their  higher 
correlates  adapted  to  modern  life,  the  other  to  readjust  rela- 
tions between  secondary  education  and  higher  education  in  gen- 
eral. 

Emancipation  of  the  secondary  school. —  The  real  genius 
of  educational  development  is  to  push  out  into  higher  forms, — 
into  more  complete  equipment.  The  lower  needs  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  higher.  The  higher  needs  the  stimulus  and  help  of 
the  lower.  In  this  movement  the  old  university  has  undergone 
quite  as  much  modification  as  the  old  secondary  school.  What 
has  been  taking  place  is  really  an  emancipation  of  the  second- 
ary school  that  will  leave  it  free  to  work  out  its  real  spirit  for 
the  interests  of  all,  and  will  have  the  effect  of  making  both  the 
higher  and  the  lower  school  face  modern  life  in  a  cooperative 
way,  so  that  each  will  use  the  other  in  supplying  broader  train- 

0  For  most  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  secondary  school  continued 
practically  as  a  preparatory  school. 
7  See  Chapter  XIX,  pp.  300  ff.,  and  notes,  and  p.  309. 


A  REVIEW  AND  A  FORECAST  353 

ing  for  the  small  but  increasing  number  of  those  who  can  take 
an  extended  course  of  study.  At  the  same  time  it  will  permit 
the  high  school  to  serve  efficiently  and  appreciatively  as  a  gen- 
eral training  ground  for  that  large  body  of  adolescents  that 
must  confine  its  education  to  this  school. 

The  movement  to  make  the  secondary  school  again  the  cen- 
tral institution,  responsive  to  its  own  ideals  and  needs,  is  a  most 
interesting  phase  of  educational  development.  In  studying  and 
solving  the  problem  of  bringing  this  school  to  its  own  again  we 
need  to  realize  how  deep  are  the  roots  of  the  problem,  how 
long  a  history  it  has  had. 

Pressing  problems  of  the  secondary  school.—  This  problem 
at  first  sight  strikes  the  attention  prominently  and  has  been 
engaging  thought  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  But  there  are  other 
secondary  school  problems  more  fundamental,  because  they 
grow  out  of  the  nature  of  the  secondary  pupil  and  the  nature 
of  the  educational  process, —  problems  of  means  and  ends,  of 
scope  and  organization,  of  curriculum,  method,  and  administra- 
tion. Their  solution  will  materially  affect  the  solution  of  the 
first  and  more  external  and  superficial  problem.  Here  it  is 
particularly  important  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  secondary  education  and  be  able  to  follow  its  evolu- 
tion, if  we  are  to  find  the  basal  causes  and  reach  definite  and 
permanent  results ;  for  the  problems, —  their  relations,  their 
form,  and  their  implications, —  reach  far  back. 

The  future. —  As  the  high  school  appears  on  the  edge  of  the 
twentieth  century  we  find  not  only  large  and  worthy  achieve- 
ments standing  to  its  credit,  but  certain  very  definite  opportuni- 
ties and  needs  calling  it.  In  the  case  of  any  individual  organ- 
ism the  body  develops  before  the  spirit.  In  the  world  organ- 
ism present  events  make  it  only  too  manifest  that  the  body  has 
developed  far  beyond  the  spirit.  Civilization  at  first  pioneers 
and  grasps  at  the  most  obvious  necessities.  In  the  development 
of  high  school  education  the  same  condition  exists, —  perhaps 
unnecessarily,  but  still  no  less  definitely,  and  no  less  worthy  of 
solicitude.  It  is  wisdom  to  face  the  situation  frankly.  The 
external  has  outstripped  the  internal.  More  attention  has  been 
given  to  administration  than  to  organization,  to  forms  and 
curricula  than  to  content  and  method,  to  teachers'  knowledge 


354  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

than  to  training  for  the  teaching  profession,  to  the  formal 
demands  of  business  and  society,  of  college  and  technical 
school,  than  to  real  appreciation  of  the  aims  of  the  high  school 
and  its  fuller  relations  to  what  is  around  and  beyond  it,  to 
formal  study  than  to  a  realization  of  adolescent  qualities  and 
adjustments,  of  what  is  after  all  the  most  vital  preparation  for 
all  the  ultimate  purposes  and  stages  of  development  that  have 
been  referred  to.  Just  demands  upon  the  high  school  there- 
fore have  often  been  lost  sight  of.  Over  against  striking  and 
most  useful  gains  must  be  set  the  things  still  left  to  be  done, 
and  that  with  no  disparagement  of  present  accomplishments. 
The  twentieth  century  thus  has  its  work  clearly  marked  out  in 
these  particulars  and  faces  no  inconsiderable  task, —  all  the 
harder  because  it  is  not  yet  fully  realized  and  appreciated  by 
the  general  school  public. 

Three  needs. —  As  the  last  century  closed  the  high  school 
was  waiting  confidently  for  three  things, —  I,  a  reorganization 
of  its  curriculum-content,  old  and  new ;  2,  changes  in  method 
based  upon  psychological  principles;  3,  a  new  spirit  and  aim 
and  an  organization  consonant  with  them  that  would  relate  the 
school  more  closely  to  life  and  the  ideas  of  democracy.  The 
first  had  its  beginning  with  the  German  realists  and  had  been 
progressing  very  slowly  since.  It  remained  to  eliminate  the 
outworn,  to  adapt  the  new  to  the  old  more  perfectly,  and  to 
adapt  all  more  fully  to  new  aims  and  ends.  The  second  was 
initiated  by  Comenius  and  Pestalozzi,  and  was  advanced  by  the 
German  realists  abroad  and  by  Agassiz  and  his  students  and 
kindred  spirits  in  this  country.  It  touched  the  secondary 
school  through  the  elementary  school  and  the  university,  but 
it  touched  it  rather  lightly  for  a  long  time,  for  the  secondary 
school  has  always  been  a  laggard  here  and  not  an  enterprising 
student  of  the  psychology  and  pedagogy  of  adolescence.  A 
method  carefully  differentiated  from  elementary  school  method, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  from  college  method,  on  the  other,  was 
still  to  be  developed.  Too  long  it  had  been  assumed  that  one 
general  method  applies  to  all  cases,  and  that  a  special  method 
for  teaching  a  subject  may  be  applied  uniformly  at  any  age  of 
the  pupil.  The  third  reform  was  coming  slowly  through  scien- 
tific study  and  through  discussion  from  three  view-points,  first, 


A  REVIEW  AND  A  FORECAST  355 

the  history  of  the  secondary  school  that  furnishes  the  key  to 
an  understanding  of  the  problem  and  its  implications ;  second, 
the  study  of  adolescence  and  of  genetic  psychology ;  and  third, 
a  closer  investigation  of  the  just  relations  of  secondary  educa- 
tion to  the  present  organization  of  society. 

Variety  without  unity. —  This  analysis  brings  out  one 
side.  To  state  the  situation  in  another  way  and  with  special 
reference  to  our  own  country,  it  may  be  said  that  the  last  cen- 
tury was  at  once  a  transitional  and  an  initial  one.  It  had  the 
characteristics  natural  to  such  a  period.  It  would  seem  the 
counterpart  of  the  early  Christian  era.  Pressed  by  new  ideas 
and  new  demands,  distracted  by  the  breaking  up  of  old  rela- 
tions and  the  establishment  of  new  ones,  it  had  turned  spas- 
modically now  in  this  direction,  now  in  that,  as  the  circum- 
stances of  the  moment  suggested,  and  as  a  single  ray  of  light 
directed.  Conditions  for  settled  forms  did  not  exist.  It  was 
a  time  of  experimenting.  Orientation  had  been  imperfect. 
Impulse  unsupported  by  careful  scientific  judgment  had  been 
the  guide.  Education  had  felt  a  way  rather  than  made  a  way. 
Many  guiding  facts  had  been  lacking,  and  those  present  had 
been  unorganized.  Hence  it  had  been  a  period  of  variety 
without  unity  in  secondary  education,  of  multiplicity  of  forms 
without  the  definite  crystallization  of  types.  The  work  had 
thus  been  external.  It  was  for  a  new  century  to  classify,  to 
organize,  to  give  scientific  substance  and  unity,  in  place  of 
shifting  ideas  and  forms.  This  involved  a  new  study  of  the 
whole  of  education  as  applied  to  current  needs. 

Another  generalization  —  Progress  in  democratizing  sec- 
ondary education. —  Still  another  generalization  from  a  differ- 
ent point  of  view  will  be  interesting,  and  it  will  help  us  to  appre- 
ciate the  condition  at  the  end  of  the  century  and  to  interpret  the 
signs  of  the  coming  epoch  in  secondary  education.  When 
the  eighteenth  century  closed  secondary  education  was  essen- 
tially aristocratic,  accessible  only  to  certain  classes,  this  partly 
because  of  national  sentiment  and  consequent  administrative 
restrictions,  and  partly  because  of  prohibitive  expense.  Little 
change  was  made  in  the  social  relations  of  the  secondary  school 
till  the  nineteenth  century  was  well-nigh  spent.  Its  last  decades 
saw  great  progress  in  accessibility  of  secondary  education,  in 


356  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

urgency  to  take  advantage  of  its  larger  opportunities  and  in 
readiness  to  respond  to  them.8  It  remained  for  the  twen- 
tieth century  to  democratize  it,  to  open  it  to  all  classes  by  abol- 
ishing administrative  hindrances,  and,  by  relieving  or  remov- 
ing individual  expense,  to  press  its  claims  on  all,  till  its  full 
power  is  realized. 

Reasons  for  extending  secondary  education. —  Every  indi- 
vidual is  entitled  to  freedom.  Education  sets  the  individual 
free  to  develop  his  power  to  high  possibilities.  Individual 
power  settled,  collective  power  is  assured.  Education,  rightly 
conceived  and  administered,  is  a  selective  process  that  deter- 
mines and  measures  a  nation's  assets.  To  disclose  a  nation's 
real  strength  it  must  select  from  the  many,  not  from  the  few. 
Even  the  poorest  that  goes  through  the  process  becomes  a  more 
effective  agent  by  a  margin  sufficient  to  balance  the  cost  of  the 
process.  Certain  censors,  by  the  fiat  of  individual  judgment 
based  on  partial  data  and  on  aristocratic  notions,  would  restrict 
the  ministries  of  higher  forms  of  education  to  certain  groups 
that  show  promise  in  earlier  stages  of  education.  This  is  a 
dangerous  policy.  Tests  at  one  period  of  life,  whether  of  indi- 
vidual or  race,  are  for  that  period  alone  and  do  not  apply  to 
a  later  period,  when  all  conditions  are  changed  and  a  new 
growth,  quantitatively  and  qualitatively,  is  proceeding.  It  may 
often  happen  that  ability  of  a  high  order  does  not  appear  in 
early  years.  If  education  is  limited  to  this  period,  this  ability 
may  never  be  found.  Education,  if  honestly  and  continuously 
applied,  is  a  great  discoverer.  It  goes  straight  to  the  main- 
springs of  action  and  discloses  whatever  power  is  there.  It 
should  be  offered  to  all  in  unstinted  measure  and  should  thor- 
oughly test  and  evaluate  all. 

Universal  secondary  education  a  special  discoverer  of 
power. —  Elementary  education,  made  universal,  opened  up  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  human  resources  of  the  nation  and 
world,  and  put  in  motion  a  certain  degree  of  national  and  world 
power.  Universal  secondary  education  will  make  it  possible 
to  utilize  resources  and  power,  not  in  a  second  degree  merely, 
but  in  a  far  higher  degree,  because  of  the  peculiar  vantage 
ground  of  secondary  pupils,  recognized  in  all  ages  and  nations 

8  See  Chapter  XIX. 


A  REVIEW  AND  A  FORECAST  357 

from  primitive  times  on.9  Adolescence  teems  with  peculiar 
power  that  needs  encouragement,  direction,  adjustment,  special 
development,  in  short,  a  refining  process,  to  fulfil  its  best.  Ele- 
mentary education  deals  largely  with  facts  and  forms  and 
the  simpler  habits  of  life.  Secondary  education  deals  with 
great  interests  and  enthusiasms  and  the  higher  and  the  final 
motive  forces  that  project  the  individual  into  the  technique  of 
civic  and  industrial  life.  It  is  the  time  for  making  world 
citizens.  Citizenship  will  be  of  a  far  higher  type  if  the  sec- 
ondary period  of  education  has  the  making  of  it.  To  be  sepa- 
rated from  solicitous  school  training,  when  the  power  that 
makes  the  citizen  who  makes  the  state  is  in  the  most  critical 
stage  of  development,  is  a  public  calamity. 

Universal  in  primitive  times. —  Secondary  education  was 
universal  in  the  primitive  tribes.  The  life  of  the  tribe  required 
it.  As  the  civic  unit  grew,  civilization  neglected  or  restricted 
it.  Old  emphases  were  dimmed  or  lost;  new  emphases  were 
not  developed.  Civilization  in  turn  must  restore  what  has  been 
lost  and  add  to  it,  if  it  is  to  be  protected  in  systematic,  safe, 
and  effective  development.  We  are  no  farther  from  universal 
secondary  education,  free  to  all,  than  the  world  once  was  from 
the  same  degree  of  elementary  education. 

What  is  to  be  the  outcome?  We  instinctively  forecast  the 
future.  In  doing  this  it  is  evidently  more  natural,  more  profit- 
able, and,  at  the  same  time,  safer  to  consider  the  secondary 
school  nearest  us, —  in  some  ways  the  most  significant  of  all 
secondary  schools,  the  High  School  of  the  United  States.  Each 
nation,  while  sharing  in  all  the  general  movements  of  second- 
ary education,  has  its  own  special  history  and,  with  it,  its  indi- 
vidual views  and  aims.  Each  has,  and  for  some  time  will 
continue  to  have,  its  own  distinctive  policy  in  secondary  educa- 
tion. All  nations,  however,  are  steadily  assimilating  their  sec- 
ondary schools  to  certain  types  that  a  constantly  growing  com- 
munity of  interests  and  the  increasing  similarity  of  life  condi- 

9  At  present  there  are  in  the  U.  S.  11,500.000  persons  between  15 
and  19  years  of  age  (inclusive).  Of  these  4,100,000  are  in  school.  Of 
5,600,000  between  fifteen  and  sixteen  (inclusive)  3,100,000  are  in  school. 
A  large  task  is  therefore  in  front  of  us,  as  shown  elsewhere.  Full  fig- 
ures are  given  in  the  last  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1914-15. 


358  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

tions  the  world  over  dictate.  It  is  best  here  therefore  to  con- 
sider the  future  of  our  High  School  and  leave  the  history  and 
present  and  future  status  of  other  individual  secondary  school 
systems, —  those  of  England,  Germany,  and  France,  for  a 
separate  volume.10 

10  See  also  Chapter  XIX,  pp.  301  f. 


XXIII 

THE   HIGH    SCHOOL  OF   THE   TWENTIETH    CENTURY PROGRAMS 

OF   STUDIES   AND   CURRICULA 

Limitations  of  a  forecast. —  Can  we,  even  in  outline,  por- 
tray the  typical  high  school  of  the  twentieth  century?  Yes  and 
no.  No,  if  on  the  basis  of  the  interpretation  of  the  secondary 
school  to-day  we  attempt  to  apply  certain  preconceived  notions 
of  secondary  education,  or  if  we  try  to  determine  too  many 
details  that  only  the  circumstances  of  the  time  can  decide.  Yes, 
if  we  have  interpreted  the  signs  of  the  last  epoch  rightly,  if  we 
take  into  consideration  the  convictions  of  leaders  who  are  most 
intimately  engaged  in  secondary  school  work  to-day  and  get 
their  view-points,  and  if  we  bring  to  bear  on  the  matter  an 
historical  imagination  that  has  been  constantly  exercised  in  an 
attempt  to  form  clear  and  sympathetic  mental  pictures  of  the 
feelings,  ambitions,  and  conditions  that  determined  ideals  and 
forms  of  secondary  education  in  different  epochs  of  its  devel- 
opment. Any  forecast  thus  seriously  made  is  of  value  in 
stimulating  secondary  school  thought,  whether  all  agree  as  to 
the  forecast  or  not. 

In  outlining  the  general  form  and  modes  of  the  coming  high 
school  we  must  keep  in  mind  one  or  two  fundamental  thoughts 
that  are  to  inform  and  infuse  all  that  is  said,  whether  men- 
tioned specifically  in  every  case  or  not. 

The  high  school  the  key  to  national  development. —  It 
must,  then,  be  recognized  in  all  discussions  of  this  kind  that  the 
high  school  is  the  key  to  the  future  development  of  the  nation. 
A  new  mentality,  new  motives,  new  ambitions  and  enthusiasms, 
and  a  new  physical  life  are  the  conditions  with  which  the  sec- 
ondary school  has  to  deal  on  the  human  side.  At  the  high 
school  age  the  great  guiding  habits  of  life,  mental,  physical, 
and,  the  resultant  of  the  two,  moral,  are  forming,  adolescing. 
Great  fields  of  thought  and  effort  are  being  explored  with  ado- 

359 


3<5o  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

lescent  zest.  Great  trends  of  interest  are  being  determined. 
The  high  school  period  is  not  so  much  a  preparatory  period  as 
a  determining  and  dominant  one.  It  is  not  merely  a  second 
step  or  epoch  in  the  evolution  of  the  finished  social  agent ;  it  is 
the  central  epoch.  Its  training  is  not  a  mere  limb  of  education ; 
it  is  its  central  nervous  system.  It  is  not  a  stage  up  the  hill ;  it 
is  a  hill-top,  with  other  hill-tops  in  sight,  it  may  be,  but  still  a 
hill-top,  if  not  the  hill-top.  These  different  figures  that  rep- 
resent secondary  education  as  a  preparation,  a  part  of  a  system, 
an  evolution,  or,  poetically,  as  the  climbing  of  some  fair 
mount,  serve  to  emphasize  the  critical  nature  of  this  period  of 
education.  Our  whole  study  has  impressed  upon  us  this  fact, 
that  the  high  school  is  the  determining  factor  in  American 
school  life.  It  makes  the  university  and  conditions  all  that 
the  university  does,  as  it  gives  the  growing  pupil  his  "  set "  in 
life.     Primitive  man  felt  this  dominance;  later  man  knows  it. 

A  change  in  the  aim  of  the  high  school. —  The  aim  of  high 
school  education,  as  was  shown  in  Chapter  XXI,  is  therefore 
not  to  be  from  without,  either  generally  from  some  higher 
institution,  or,  more  particularly,  from  the  urgency  of  some 
study  with  its  compact  body  of  facts  and  principles  and  its  influ- 
ential clientele  to  press  on  its  claims  and  dictate  its  methods. 
The  aim  is  to  be  from  within,  guided  by  a  sympathetic  study 
of  the  secondary  school  period  and  its  implications  and  obliga- 
tions. The  idea  has  had  a  slow  beginning.  Habits  of  educa- 
tion, rooted  in  a  strong  educational  polity  that  a  former  age 
developed  and  found  peculiarly  adapted  to  itself,  both  socially 
and  politically,  are  naturally,  and  psychologically  have  to  be, 
obstinate  factors  to  modify.  The  new  century  is  to  bring  to 
the  front  the  real  mission  of  the  high  school  and  provide  for  its 
ample  fulfilment.  Applying  these  ideas  each  form  and  process 
of  the  high  school  takes  on  new  meanings  and  shows  new 
possibilities. 

Growth  in  the  program  of  studies. —  To  begin  with  the 
program  of  studies,  we  shall  find,  by  reviewing  recent  pages, 
that  a  very  interesting  development  is  in  progress.  We  found 
that  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  modern  studies 
came  rapidly  into  the  curriculum.  Of  the  old  studies  Greek  had 
passed  as  a  required  subject.     Latin  remained,  but  it  was  not 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     361 

such  an  absolute  requirement  as  before.  Mathematics  still 
kept  their  place,  but  they  had  begun  to  share  their  prestige 
with  other  studies.  Science,  history,  and  the  fine  arts  had 
been  adopted  into  the  curriculum.  The  study  of  the  vernacular 
was  showing  a  finer  development,  to  fill  the  place  left  by  the 
waning  classics;  the  previous  enterprising  classical  study  had 
paved  the  way  for  it.  Vocational  subjects  had  begun  to  make 
a  definite  place  for  themselves  but  they  lacked  standing. 

How  studies  come  into  the  program  —  Study  changes  in 
the  twentieth  century  high  school. —  Studies  come  into  the 
school  in  response  to  certain  definite  conditions.  Conditions 
change,  but  conservatism  tends  to  keep  the  studies  and  maintain 
their  old  importance.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  Latin.1 
Hence  some  educational  material  and  some  educational  ends  out- 
live their  usefulness  in  the  way  in  which  they  are  applied.  The 
secondary  school  to-day  still  clings  to  that  which  is  outworn 
either  in  itself  or  in  its  method  of  application.  The  new  cen- 
tury will  advance  the  process  of  expurgation.  It  will  see  Latin 
reduced  to  an  elective  study.  Algebra  and  geometry  will  not 
hold  the  same  absolute  position  as  to-day,  nor  will  they  lay 
claim  to  the  same  comparative  training  value.  Science  will  be 
made  more  concrete  and  adaptable.  The  mechanic  and  fine 
arts  are  to  have  wider  and  finer  applications.  The  vernacular 
will  have  a  new  development,  unhampered  by  traditional  clas- 
sical methods  that  dominated  all  language  study  so  long  and 
still  have  great  influence.  It  will  prove  an  educational  agent 
superior  to  Latin  even  in  its  own  field.  History  is  to  become 
a  more  vital  study,  especially  that  phase  of  it  called  civics, 
which  has  often  been  a  rather  perfunctory  member  of  the 

1  In  early  epochs  the  secondary  school  ministered  to  the  few ;  prepara- 
tion for  professional  life  was  simple  and  traditional ;  in  politics  absolut- 
ism favored  a  formal,  memory  study,  such  as  Latin  then  was,  rather 
than  a  study  that  developed  independence  and  initiative.  Latin  was 
moreover  a  daily  professional  necessity,  or  was  the  only  available  liter- 
ary language,  in  fact  the  only  study  that  offered  itself  as  a  medium  of 
mental  training.  Under  such  circumstances  a  more  or  less  thorough 
discipline  in  Latin  served  as  an  excellent  propaedeutic  to  life.  These 
conditions  passed,  but  Latin  remained  with  claims  unmodified. 

Again,  well  known  circumstances  (see  XIX)  gave  us  Greek  in  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  These  conditions  passed.  Because 
Greek  had  less  momentum  than  Latin  in  the  curriculum,  it  quickly  gave 
way  and  became  an  optional  study. 


362  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

group  of  high  school  studies.  Its  most  striking  development  in 
the  new  high  school  is  to  be  in  the  direction  of  "  community 
civics."  Through  this  new  motif  it  is  to  take  on  new  life  and 
value.2  With  it  will  go  a  study  of  sociology,  which  by  a  simple 
and  concrete  method  will  open  up  a  new  world  to  high  school 
students,  revealing  to  them  the  fundamental  forces  of  society, 
helping  them  especially  to  analyze  and  appreciate  the  local 
community  of  which  they  are  a  part,  and  cultivating  a  spirit 
of  service.  Vocational  subjects  will  increase  in  popularity  and 
in  real  value,  and  will  assume  a  leading  place.  But,  what  is 
perhaps  more  significant  than  anything  else  in  connection  with 
high  school  studies,  the  physical  side  of  education  will  be  more 
definitely  represented.  There  is  thus  to  be  a  clear  revision  of 
the  program  of  studies.  There  will  be  a  more  striking  revision 
of  the  content  of  studies,  but  this  point  will  be  more  appropri- 
ately treated  later. 

General  character  of  study  and  instruction. —  All  these 
studies  have  a  great  future  before  them,  because  they  lie  at 
the  foundation  of  the  business  and  amenities  of  life.  The 
twentieth  century  high  school  will  not  tolerate  anything  super- 
ficial in  any  of  them.  The  new  studies  are  to  receive  as  broad 
and  thorough  treatment  as  any  studies  the  high  school  has  ever 
seen  or  heard  of,  and  their  demands  upon  the  pupil  will  be  as 
insistent.  Even  the  newest  studies  that  meet  with  disparage- 
ment in  some  quarters  at  first  are  to  have  as  whole-souled 
respect  and  consideration  and  as  careful  planning  as  any,  that 
they  may  do  their  part  in  developing  intelligence,  skill,  and 

y  power,  together  with  public-spirited  efficiency.  Cultural  and 
practical  are  to  unite  in  them,  as  in  others.  Work  it  is,  solid, 
thorough,  enthusiastic  work,  that  here,  as  everywhe^Avill 
develop  fineness  of  fibre  and  inspiration  to  real  efificiencyPI 


2  To  indicate  the  possibilities  of  such  a  course,  especially  when  com- 
bined with  sociology,  the  following  outline  by  Mr.  Clarence  D.  Kingsley, 
of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  is  suggestive:  — 

Essentials  of  community  welfare :  — 

1.  Health  6.  Wealth,  with  its  correlate,  char- 

2.  Recreation  ities 

3.  Education  7.  Beauty 

4.  Protection  of  life  and  property     8.  Communication 

5.  Order  in  society  (with  its  cor-      9.  Transportation 

relate,  correction)  10.  Migration. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     363 

Different  kinds  of  thoroughness. —  But  this  caution  should 
be  given,  that  there  are  different  kinds  of  solidity  and  different 
kinds  of  thoroughness.  There  is  one  kind  for  adolescents, 
another  for  adults.  We  are  here  speaking  of  adolescents. 
Thoroughness  has  been  a  favorite  word  in  education.  It  has 
often  been  applied  inconsiderately,  without  noting  that  it  is 
not  an  absolute  nor  a  uniform  term.  What  is  said  farther 
on  as  to  study-content  and  method  will  be  suggestive  in  this 
connection. 

Number  and  range  of  subjects. —  The  names  of  studies  thus 
far  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  program  of  studies  are 
class  names  rather  than  individual  names.  Each  one  of  them 
represents  a  whole  group  of  specific  studies.  In  the  aggregate 
we  have  a  multitude.  There  is,  however,  no  danger  of  having 
too  many.  Adolescence  needs  a  wide  field  for  exploration 
before  determining  its  settled  interests.  Even  the  old  studies 
that  conservatism  leaves  side  by  side  with  those  that  are  more 
modern  and  that  respond  more  fully  to  modern  conditions, 
meet  a  natural  interest  in  many,  either  for  culture  or  for  prac- 
tical purposes.  They  may  safely  remain,  provided  there  is  no 
exaction  in  regard  to  them.3  In  this  wide  range  of  particular 
studies  there  is  very  definite  unity,  because  they  are  classified 
in  a  few  well-marked  groups,  as  already  indicated.  In  the 
coming  high  school  the  main  guide  will  be  groups  of  studies, 
rather  than  individual  studies. 

Vocational  studies  and  physical  education  to  be  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  of  the  new  program  of  studies. — 
As  far  as  the  program  of  studies  is  concerned  the  most  con- 
spicuous characteristic  of  the  twentieth  century  high  school 
will  be  its  devotion  to  vocational  education  and  physical  edu- 
cation. As  to  vocational  education  it  should  be  noted  that  it 
is  not  a  new  idea  or  policy.  The  curriculum  of  early  schools 
was  vocational  in  the  extreme  when  it  was  establishing  itself 
in   remote  centuries.4    We  have  simply   forgotten  what  the 

3  Latin  and  Greek  are  still  very  useful  subjects  under  certain  con- 
ditions. Work  done  in  them  has  had  great  educational  value.  Only 
an  equally  enterprising  training  in  the  vernaculars  can  serve  as  an 
excuse  for  supplanting  them. 

4  See  Chapters  XII  and  XIII.  The  term,  vocational,  is  a  misleading 
one,  almost  a  misnomer.    It  actually  means  that  education  which  pre- 


364  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

vocations  were  and  how  the  curriculum  tried  to  meet  them. 
The  educational  world  has  failed  to  keep  the  school  closely 
related  to  vocations  and  to  make  it  a  full  expression  of  the 
vocational  idea,  as  was  the  case  in  the  old  school.  The  special 
significance  of  the  whole  vocational  movement  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  high  school  is  no  longer  to  rest  on  by-gone  educational 
facts.  It  can  no  longer  calm  a  rising  educational  conscience  by 
tacking  on  here  and  there  a  new  bit,  without  providing  for 
more  than  a  superficial  articulation  with  the  old.  The  twen- 
tieth century  high  school  will  make  the  vocational  aim  an 
integral  part  of  high  school  polity  and  work  it  out  effectively. 

Vocations  in  modern  times  have  been  left  in  an  anomalous 
position,  as  far  as  definite  educational  preparation  is  concerned. 
The  future  will  demand  thorough  educational  preparation  for 
what  we  now  regard  as  simple  apprentice  crafts.  Various 
curricula  adapted  to  different  vocations  will  be  laid  out  giving 
broad  education  as  well  as  technical  training.  Only  this  will 
give  real  command  of  vocations.  Only  this  will  assure  sound, 
happy,  and  progressive  mental  and  industrial  life.  One  great 
nation  has  proved  its  value  as  a  means  of  occupying  its  oppor- 
tunities in  a  rather  wonderful  way.  Others  must  do  the  same. 
The  inexorable  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  will  enforce 
this  policy,  if  we  do  not  heed  higher  and  more  beneficent  laws. 

The  vocational  idea  part  of  a  larger  idea  — "  Social  Utili- 
ties."—  The  vocational  idea  that  is  justly  so  prominent  to- 
day and  is  to  be  more  insistent  in  the  future  is  only  a  part  of  a 
larger  idea.  A  new  scheme  of  concentration,  not  yet  worked 
out,  makes  "  social  utilities  "  the  starting  point  in  determining 
the  details  of  a  curriculum.  There  will  not  be  new  study- 
names,  but  there  will  be  ends  and  directions  different  from 
those  that  now  rule,  better  adapted  to  high  school  pupils,  more 
practical,  and  at  the  same  time  more  cultural.  The  idea  of 
"  social  utilities  "  again  is  not  a  new  one,  but  a  more  scientific 
application  of  an  old  idea,  and  particularly  an  application  to 

pares  one  for  his  occupation,  whether  high  or  low,  broad  or  narrow. 
In  its  current  use  it  is  thought  of  as  applying  to  humbler  occupations, 
more  particularly  those  that  are  mechanical  and  commercial.  Educa- 
tion for  the  so-called  learned  professions  is  vocational  education  as 
much  as  the  other.  Education  has  always  been  vocational,  but  it  has 
been  narrowly  so.    We  are  now  simply  extending  it  to  its  just  limits. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     365 

new  conditions.  The  old  curriculum,6  as  it  started,  was  an 
expression  of  social  utilities.  The  utilities  were  those  of  the 
time.  The  "  curriculum " 5  became  stereotyped.  Utilities 
changed  and  grew.  There  is  going  on  a  re-thinking  of  social 
utilities.  Educators  and  the  public  are  trying  to  find  the  real 
utilities  of  the  present  and  to  represent  them  genuinely  and 
broadly  on  the  high  school  program.  The  vocational  aim 
would  objectify  education.  The  social  utility  aim  would 
objectify  it  more  broadly,  because  it  directs  attention  to  com- 
munity as  well  as  to  individual  ideals. 

Education  the  greatest  social  utility. —  In  a  way  this  idea 
makes  education  subjective  as  well  as  objective,  for,  if  rightly 
applied,  it  stimulates  pupils  to  make  education  an  interpreter 
of  outside  obligations  and  to  think  of  courses  and  curricula  in 
terms  of  public  service  as  well  as  of  personal  advancement,  or 
rather  in  terms  of  personal  advancement  through  public  serv- 
ice. It  encourages  them  also  to  think  of  education  itself  as  the 
greatest  social  utility.  Studies  thus  become  more  than  formal 
training  factors;  they  become  agencies  of  social  efficiency. 
The  new  studies  are  not  to  be  ends,  but  merely  agents  in  bring- 
ing the  pupil  into  contact  with  present  day  life  at  its  strongest 
and  in  equipping  him  to  subserve  and  advance  it  with  some 
power  of  initiative  under  the  inspiration  of  community  spirit. 

Physical  education  fundamental. —  The  second  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  the  coming  high  school  program,  as  already 
suggested,  will  be  its  contributions  to  physical  education.  This 
point  calls  for  a  more  special  word  than  others,  because  it  has 
come  less  definitely  and  seriously  into  the  program  of  studies 
and  because  some  phases  of  physical  education  are  not  even 
yet  thought  of  as  legitimate  parts  of  that  program.  The  whole 
matter  has  oftener  than  otherwise  been^an  object  of  indiffer- 
ence and  neglect,  or  at  least  has  had  but  accidental  care.  The 
physical  is  more  fundamental  than  history  or  geography,  science 
or  mathematics,  or  any  other  courses.  All  that  concerns 
physical  development  therefore  has  a  superior  claim  on  the 
attention  and  effort  of  teachers. 

Misplaced  physical  education. —  The  physical  and  the  men- 
tal sides  of  education  require  very  fine  adjustment  to  prevent 

5  "  Curriculum  "  and  "  program  of  studies  "  were  identical  then. 


366  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

them  from  hindering  one  another.  Physical  education  may 
easily  be  so  conducted  as  to  times,  seasons,  and  amounts,  and 
as  to  its  relations  to  other  parts  of  education,  that  the  mental 
powers  will  be  rendered  dull  and  heavy  instead  of  buoyant. 
The  twentieth  century  high  school  is  to  work  out  these  rela- 
tions justly. 

Character  of  work  in  physiology  and  hygiene. —  In  coming 
curricula  there  will  be  a  definite  study  of  physiology  and 
hygiene,  but  largely  of  a  biological  nature  and  of  the  most  con- 
crete type,  calculated  to  develop  a  healthy  interest  and  sound 
and  broad  thinking  on  the  subject.  But,  more  and  better  than 
this,  physical  training  in  the  high  school  is  to  consist  largely 
in  the  practice  of  hygienic  living.  The  whole  school  life  and 
all  school  conditions  are  to  be  so  organized  that  this  practice 
will  become  a  natural  and  regular  part  of  the  pupil's  regimen. 
It  is  habits  that  we  need,  to  make  the  study  of  the  physical  of 
any  value.  The  pupil  is  to  write  his  own  book  on  physiology 
in  living  characters. 

Hygiene  of  school  plant  and  school  room. —  In  the  first 
place  special  attention  is  to  be  given  to  the  school  plant  and 
the  school  room.  The  adolescent  is  in  a  state  that  is  well 
called  unstable  equilibrium.  Everything  suggests  tension. 
Light,  temperature,  seat  conditions,  air  space,  and  particularly 
the  general  environment  of  the  school  are  to  be  such  that  the 
least  possible  strain  will  result.  These  things  are  not  mere 
conveniences  for  formal  school  work,  though  they  sometimes 
seem  to  be  considered  as  such,  but  they  have  a  definite  func- 
tion to  perform  in  promoting  physical  well-being  and  develop- 
ment and  in  determining  educational  results  generally.  More 
scientific  investigation  of  this  topic  and  better  ideals  are  to 
come. 

More  work  outside  —  Less  work  with  books  and  labor- 
atories inside. —  In  the  second  place  more  of  the  school  work 
is  to  be  done  out  of  doors.  Entirely  aside  from  open-air 
classes,  which  have  a  distinct  mission,  there  is  to  be  less  of 
books  and  close  laboratories  within  brick  walls  and  more  work 
with  the  greater  books  and  laboratories  outside.  Such  methods 
will  bring  stronger  scholarship,  more  real  appreciation,  a  bet- 
ter  foundation    for  life,  as  well   as    for  the   university, —  a 


THE'  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     367 

stronger  man  on  all  sides,  more  appreciative  of  nature  and  of 
community  life.  History,  civics,  economics,  physiography, 
geology,  botany,  physics,  chemistry,  and  even  Latin  will  be  the 
better  for  such  work.  They  all  give  opportunities  for  the 
abounding  activity  and  the  peculiar  impulses  to  expression 
found  in  adolescence. 

Physical  exercises  —  Games  and  sports. —  In  the  third  place 
stress  is  to  be  laid  upon  the  physical  development  that  comes 
through  physical  exercises  of  the  school,  and  particularly 
through  games,  sports,  and  general  out-door  exercise  that 
appeal  to  adolescent  life.  Physical  training  involves  not  only 
games,  but  competitive  games,  for  they  are  as  much  a  part  of 
it  as  special-interest  exercises  are  a  part  of  history,  or  as  con- 
tests in  writing  and  debating  are  of  courses  in  English,  or  draw- 
ing competition  of  the  course  in  art.  But  their  function  is 
that  of  developing  interest,  not  that  of  climax,  as  has  too  often 
been  the  case. 

Advance  in  athletics. —  With  the  possible  exception  of  Eng- 
land little  advance  in  athletics  has  been  made  for  two  thousand 
years.  Most  of  the  time  there  has  been  actual  retrogression. 
The  matter  was  taken  up  where  it  was  left  so  long  ago,  and 
not  infrequently  the  imitation  has  fallen  short  of  the  original. 
Much  of  the  talk  about  athletics  has  been  of  the  contagious, 
imitative  sort.  In  fact  feeling  and  thought  here  give  one  of 
the  finest  illustrations  of  the  "  psychology  of  the  mob."  This 
has  been  true  in  part  of  writing  upon  the  subject,  but  there  has 
been  more  evidence  of  balanced  judgment  in  this  direction. 
The  twentieth  century  high  school  is  to  remedy  all  this.  It 
is  to  organize  and  administer  athletic  interests  as  an  intimate 
part  of  its  educational  scheme. 

Adolescent  characteristics  guide. —  But  the  high  school  must 
do  this  with  a  warm  appreciation  of  adolescent  needs.  There 
are  certain  well  marked  adolescent  characteristics  that  must 
guide  in  this.  Two  claim  our  attention  at  the  outset, —  one 
looking  back,  the  other  looking  forward.  On  the  one  hand 
there  is  something  elemental  in  adolescent  physical  nature, —  a 
love  of  force  and  of  feats  of  pure  strength  for  their  own  sake, 
an  exultation  in  might  as  might,  a  keen  delight  in  the  mere 
feeling  of  stress  and  strain.     This  is  a  natural  outcropping  of 


368  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

exuberant  adolescent  nature,  not  a  perversion.  It  is  as  worthy 
of  recognition  as  any  other  adolescent  characteristic.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  adolescent  has  reached  the  organizing  age,  as 
opposed  to  the  particularizing  tendencies  of  the  earlier  school 
period.  At  the  same  time  he  shows  some  appreciation  of  art. 
He  can  appreciate  good  form,  articulation  of  parts,  not  the 
finest,  but  effective,  and  that  which  results  from  these,  a  feat 
of  skill,  which  is  art  made  practical.  Put  together  these  two 
marked  characteristics,  giving  each  the  importance  due  the 
developing  adolescent,  and  we  shall  get  a  fine  combination  of 
native  force  and  skill  and  art  in  place  of  crude  force.  ,  The 
elemental  has  run  riot  and  monopolized  attention  under  a 
laissez-faire  policy.  This  elemental  must  be  directed  and  sup- 
plemented, and  other  forces  must  be  guided  and  strengthened. 
This  is  education.  Legitimate  development  of  athletics  is  as 
much  a  part  of  education  as  training  in  algebra,  probably  more 
so.  This  part  of  education,  like  others,  must  be  accomplished 
by  instruction,  not  coaching,  which  has  as  little  place  as  exami- 
nation tutoring.  Not  rules,  nor  faculty  regulations,  but  in- 
struction, involving  contests,  is  to  be  the  fundamental  agency 
in  the  case.  We  cannot  legislate  ideals  here  any  more  than  we 
can  legislate  morality.  We  can  and  must  provide  conditions 
and  opportunities  and  take  athletics  into  our  school  plan.  The 
"  coach  "  must  be  raised  to  the  position  of  a  regular  instructor, 
and  he  must  have  an  all-round  training  for  his  work. 

More  variety  in  athletics. —  Another  adolescent  character- 
istic, quite  as  important,  must  be  taken  into  account.  The 
adolescent  has  no  settled  attention  or  intention.  There  has 
been  an  upheaval  of  physical  and  mental  life,  and  he  has  not 
settled  down  to  regularity.  The  will  is  not  yet  finally  steadied. 
This,  added  to  the  obvious  fact  that  interests  are  not  uniform 
in  any  group  of  individuals,  dictates  a  variety  of  interests  in 
athletics.  The  stream  of  athletic  spirit  will  not  be  satisfied 
with  two  or  three  channels.  Yet  the  weight  of  influence  and 
recognition  has  been  thrown  in  only  a  very  few  directions, 
(practically  in  three),  of  one  particular  phase  of  athletics. 
Wide  sympathies  will  help  in  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
There  must  be  official  recognition  of  many  forms  of  games 
and  sports,  as  well  as  of  various  general  physical  exercises 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     369 

which  have  not  crystallized  into  games;  and  physical  feeling 
and  sentiment  must  be  developed  in  new  lines  as  occasion  arises. 
If,  with  effort,  and  sometimes  with  considerable  effort,  enthusi- 
asm has  been  roused  for  some  of  the  current  forms  of  sports, 
the  same  can  be  done  for  others  suited  to  adolescent  life. 
Football  really  attracts  but  a  mere  handful  of  students  for 
actual  participation,  baseball  another  handful,  aquatics  an- 
other. With  so  many  adolescent  physical  interests  this  is  to  be 
expected.  The  twentieth  century  high  school  is  to  recognize 
the  fact  that  the  athletic  side  of  physical  training  represents  a 
group  of  interests;  it  is  to  make  this  group  an  intimate  part  of 
every  curriculum  and  to  treat  it  as  generously  as  any  group  for 
its  training  possibilities. 

The  physical  side  of  education  with  broad  instruction  and 
varied  application,  including  games,  is  therefore  to  form  an 
essential  part  of  the  high  school  program.  The  new  high 
school  is  to  be  as  sharply  distinguished  from  the  old  by  this 
fact  as  by  its  contributions  to  vocational  education. 

But  there  is  another  side  of  physical  education  that  the  twen- 
tieth century  high  school  will  include  among  its  courses.  The 
study  of  social  hygiene,  and  particularly  sex  hygiene,  will  be 
even  more  characteristic  of  the  new  epoch  in  secondary  educa- 
tion than  what  has  just  been  noted.  One  of  the  basal  problems 
involved  in  every  institution  and  every  constructive  movement 
for  the  betterment  of  society  is  related  to  sex  hygiene.  The 
problem  is  an  insistent  one  because  it  has  thus  far  been  ignored 
or  treated  in  an  apologetic  and  academic  way.  A  taboo  has 
been  placed  upon  it  that  is  absolutely  unjustifiable.  One  diffi- 
culty has  been  that  the  subject  lies  at  the  meeting  place  of  two 
psychologies,  the  psychology  of  the  adolescent  and  the  psy- 
chology of  the  adult,  neither  of  which  appreciates  the  other,  one 
because  of  its  immaturity,  the  other  because  it  has  forgotten. 
That  the  study  of  sex  hygiene  in  the  high  school  is  imperative 
can  be  shown  in  many  ways  and  from  many  points  of 
view,  without  giving  any  countenance  to  certain  statements  of 
irresponsible  high  school  critics.  The  adolescent  is  now  left 
to  organize  a  whole  group  of  vital  adolescent  qualities  related  to 
sex  and  to  develop  them  with  absolutely  no  systematic  education 
or  guidance.     With  a  more  sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  psy- 


370  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

chology  of  adolescence,  particularly  with  a  more  accurate  and 
vivid  understanding  of  those  attitudes  and  impulses,  ideas  and 
powers  that  refer  to  the  maturing  of  sex  functions  and  the  cor- 
relative development  of  the  social  instinct,  and  with  larger 
views  of  the  relation  of  secondary  instruction  to  social  prob- 
lems, the  coming  high  school  is  to  bring  the  subject  of  sex 
hygiene  to  the  place  of  honor  and  importance  that  it  deserves  in 
any  program  of  studies.  Instruction  rightly  fortified  purifies ; 
ignorance  courts  evil. 

A  high  school  course  in  sex  hygiene  must  be  built  upon  co- 
operation in  the  home,  involving  the  removal  of  an  essentially 
criminal  taboo  and  the  substitution  of  naturalness  balanced  by 
advice  and  instruction,  and  upon  preparatory  work  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  so  that,  when  adolescence  is  reached,  young 
people  will  not  think  of  sex  and  social  ideas  as  strange,  forbid- 
den topics,  but  will  look  upon  them  so  naturally  that  they  will 
cause  no  remark,  not  even  the  lifting  of  a  brow.  Building  upon 
this  antecedent  work  the  high  school  may  prepare  simple 
courses  adapted  to  adolescence.6  The  general  aim  of  such 
courses  will  be  to  meet  the  craving  for  knowledge  of  the  mys- 
teries of  life  current  at  this  period  and  bound  to  be  satisfied  in 
some  way,  to  build  up  natural  and  helpful  ideas  and  habits,  and 
to  lay  a  foundation  for  personal  hygiene  of  the  highest  type. 
Prominent  among  the  specific  aims  will  be,  to  develop  a  pure 
and  wholesome  interest  in  sex  matters,  to  impress  with  the  facts 
of  sex  hygiene,  to  arouse  a  wholesome  fear  of  illicit  and  abusive 
use  of  sex  organs,  and  correlatively  to  stimulate  a  pride  in 
family  and  race  which  such  abuse  retards  in  physical  and  men- 
tal power  and  in  prestige,  and  eventually  brings  to  dishonor  and 
decay. 

The  principle  or  spirit  of  the  work  will  be  frankness  as  to 
reproductive  processes,  absolute  naturalness,  but  not  baldness, 
free  from  all  embarrassment. 

Courses  in  sex  hygiene  will  include  instruction  and  training 
as  to  sex  matters  in  general  and  as  to  personal  sex  ideals.     The 

6  To  outline  in  detail  studies  for  the  elementary  school  and  courses 
for  teachers  and  pupils  in  the  high  school,  with  extension  courses 
needed  for  general  instruction,  is  beyond  the  purpose  here.  All  that 
will  be  attempted  will  be  to  suggest  aims  and  some  of  the  larger  features 
of  instruction. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     371 

age  is  favorable ;  means  are  abundant.  Instruction  will  of 
course  be  given  in  connection  with  the  study  of  natural  science, 
particularly  biology.  This  instruction  will  be  merely  incidental 
and  correlated,  but  at  the  same  time  it  will  be  of  great  value  for 
the  great  purpose  in  view.  The  main  reliance  will  be  upon 
specific  courses  in  sex  and  social  hygiene,  which  shall  em- 
phasize, in  one  direction,  the  value  of  sound  sex  organs  and 
the  danger  of  abuse,  with  concrete  illustrations  from  the  wealth 
of  cases  open  to  any  one  who  seeks,  and,  in  the  other  direction, 
the  obligations  of  the  individual  as  a  social  factor.  As  a 
foundation  for  such  work  the  courses  will  include  a  sensible 
study  of  sex  physiology  fully  in  accord  with  the  pedagogy  of 
adolescence. 

Correlatively  with  this  instruction,  to  give  it  real  value,  a 
school  spirit  must  be  established  and  embodied  in  dynamic  ideas 
and  aims.  On  the  one  hand  the  school  must  impress  as  one  of 
its  ideals  a  well-developed  physique,  with  the  suggestion  that 
sex  abuse  often  results  from  some  physical  unevenness  and  un- 
soundness, from  a  loose  physical  screw  somewhere.  On  the 
other  hand  the  school  must  encourage  wide  interests  and  sym- 
pathies that  will  furnish  exercise  for  the  mind,  particularly  for 
the  emotional  life,  with  the  idea  that  a  person  of  narrow  in- 
terests and  thought  is  more  likely  to  give  attention  to  unhealthy 
sex  suggestions.  Both  mental  and  physical  gaps  require  filling 
and  it  is  in  no  small  part  owing  to  this  principle  that  thoughts 
turn  toward  sex  matters.  If  the  void  is  filled  with  things  worth 
while,  the  current  of  sex  thought  may  often  be  turned  off. 
With  its  rich  courses  and  its  work  in  vocational  guidance,  more 
broadly  termed  educational  guidance,  for  it  is  such,  especially 
with  its  finer  adjustment  to  present  social  needs  and  social  utili- 
ties, the  twentieth  century  high  school  is  in  a  strategic  position 
to  plan  for  each  student  a  broad  curriculum  that  will  supply 
these  "  filling  interests." 

Program  of  studies  and  curriculum. —  We  found  that  in  the 
last  century  it  was  no  longer  possible  to  speak  of  a  single  cur- 
riculum in  the  secondary  school,  but  of  a  program  of  studies 
that  divided  itself  into  several  curricula,  having  some  studies  in 
common,  it  is  true,  but  yet  essentially  distinct.  This  diversity 
of  studies  and  curricula  very  naturally  brought  in  the  principle 


37* 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


of  election,  generally  election  between  different  well-marked 
curricula.  The  new  century  is  to  extend  the  principle  to  wider 
choice,  because  preparation  in  every  line  is  broadening  and  be- 
cause general  ends  are  complex.  The  mechanic  arts  depart- 
ment, or  the  scientific  department,  for  example,  will  offer 
preparation  for  several  differentiated  vocations,  each  requiring 
a  somewhat  different  line  of  training. 

Each  department  to  have  a  program  of  studies  divisible 
into  several  curricula. —  In  other  words,  in  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury high  school  we  shall  not  be  able  to  speak  of  a  scientific  cur- 
riculum (or  "  course  "),  a  mechanic  arts  curriculum,  etc.  Each 
department  will  become  so  broad,  will  contain  so  many  separate 
technical  studies,  and  will  profitably  include  for  general  train- 
ing, as  a  foundation  for  special  training,  so  many  studies  from 
the  general  high  school  program,  that  it  will  have  its  own  special 
program  of  studies.  From  this  program  different  curricula 
will  be  formed  to  meet  individual  cases  and  the  needs  of  whole 
groups  of  pupils.  Election  will  therefore  have  broader  scope 
in  the  high  school. 

Election  to  give  place  to  educational  guidance  —  Voca- 
tional guidance. —  But  election  is  a  crude  agency  working  to- 
ward a  great  end.  It  is  to  give  place  to  educational  guidance 
and  issue  in  vocational  guidance.7  Both  educational  guidance 
and  vocational  guidance  involve  several  very  definite  condi- 
tions,—  opportunity  to  exploit  several  lines  of  interest,  before 
settling  on  a  final  choice ;  confidential  relations  between  teacher 
and  pupil  as  a  basis  for  frank  and  intimate  talks ;  methods  of 
presentation,  including  adaptation  of  content,  that  will  show 
the  study,  or  course,  or  group,  or  occupation  and  their  implica- 
tions at  their  real  value. 

A  study  of  vocations. —  But  further  than  this,  true  voca- 
tional guidance  implies  and  necessitates  the  addition  of  a  new 
study  to  the  program,  a  study  of  vocations,  that  will  take  rank 
as  one  of  the  most  important  studies  of  the  high  school.  The 
method  of  teaching  and  administering  this  study  will  involve 

7  Educational  guidance  is  to  be  more  important  than  vocational  guid- 
ance, or  rather,  the  latter  is  to  be  so  broadened  and  is  to  become  so 
fully  a  part  of  the  school  program,  instead  of  a  supplementary  and 
gratuitous  matter,  that  the  two  will  coincide. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     373 

the  collection  of  full  and  enlightening  data  as  to  occupations 
and  trades, —  not  mere  figures  and  commercial  items,  but  his- 
tory, past  and  present,  opportunities  for  advancement  and  cul- 
ture, means  of  organizing  one's  life  in  the  trade  and  vocations 
so  as  to  develop  an  all-round,  public  spirited  man  or  woman, 
and  various  other  details  of  a  kindred  nature.  Such  topics  will 
form  a  basis  for  investigation  and  discussion,  on  the  part  of 
students  and  teachers,  that  will  not  only  furnish  a  body  of  prac- 
tical knowledge,  but  will  afford  means  of  thought  training  and 
personal  development  equal  to  any  in  the  school.  Educational 
guidance  will  thus  become  not  a  superficial  and  perfunctory 
matter,  but  an  intimate  part  of  school  polity.  It  will  aid  con- 
structively in  the  great  enterprise  of  choosing  and  enriching 
occupations.  In  this  connection  the  pupil  will  not  be  obliged 
to  make  final  choice  of  curriculum  or  occupation  at  the  outset. 
Early  choices,  whether  of  studies  or  vocation,  are  to  be  neither 
fatal  nor  valueless. 

No  random  choices. —  It  is  plain  from  what  has  been  said 
that  in  this  wide  range  of  studies  and  programs  individual  selec- 
tions are  not  to  be  random  nor  are  they  to  be  such  as  to  make 
individual  curricula  fragmentary  and  superficial.  There  must 
be  consistency  and  unity.  Several  principles,  in  addition  to 
those  that  are  implied  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  are  at  hand 
to  guide  in  choices  and  thus  to  help  toward  consistency. 

1.  Re-valuing  of  studies  shows  equality  in  educational 
values. —  As  we  have  seen,  recent  educational  thought  has  been 
re-valuing  studies.  The  tendency  is  to  consider  each  study  the 
equal  of  any  other  in  essential  training  values,  though  different 
in  content  value,  which  is  determined  by  the  exigencies  of  indi- 
vidual situations.  In  the  twentieth  century  high  school  each 
study  will  be  made  so  broad,  will  show  so  many  implications,  so 
much  history,  so  much  culture  material,  so  much  practical  value, 
that  it  will  be  on  a  par  with  any  other  study-agent  as  a  medium 
for  developing  essential  power.  It  will  appeal  both  for  its  fit- 
ness as  a  means  of  preparing  for  some  special  calling,  and  for  its 
cultural  value,  its  intellectual  value,  and  its  stimulus  to  achieve- 
ment. This  is  true  of  individual  studies.  It  is  more  significant 
in  study-groups.  We  are  to  reason  and  organize  by  groups. 
We  may  even  go  further  in  speaking  of  equalities  in  training- 


374  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

values  and  say  that  no  study-group  has  a  monopoly  of  training- 
value  in  any  one  direction.  Every  natural  group  of  subjects 
constitutes  an  essential  element  in  the  development  of  any 
power.  No  power  is  simple ;  it  is  complex,  many-sided.  Lan- 
guage work  is  as  essential  for  developing  observation  power  as 
is  science.  In  the  development  of  language  power  the  classics 
are  not  supreme,  but  ancillary  and  subordinate.8  Mathematics 
and  science  are  quite  as  important  in  developing  imagination  as 
are  literature  and  history.  In  cultivating  esthetic  feeling  more 
than  fine  pictures  and  architecture  and  music  and  landscape 
gardening  are  essential.  The  finest  artistic  sense,  after  all, 
comes  from  giving  to  everything  in  school  organization,  pro- 
gram, and  method,  and  to  everything  in  school  environment,  or- 
der, symmetry,  and  harmony  of  adjustment, —  in  bringing  out 
in  everything  its  own  intrinsic  fitness  and  adaptation.9 

2.  Limitations  in  training-value  of  studies. —  This  prin- 
ciple is  closely  related  to  another:  —  Power  gained  through 
training  in  one  subject  does  not  spread  in  other  directions  except 
in  a  very  general  way.10     The  two  principles  are  essentially  one, 

8  The  so-called  disciplinary  power  of  the  classics  can  no  longer  be  a 
shibboleth.  Besides,  that  is  not  the  end  of  classical  study  at  the  best. 
We  get  out  of  subjects  what  has  been  put  into  them,  and  we  get  their 
value  only  when  we  bring  them  close  to  the  personality  of  pupils. 
Latin  was  once  the  only  study  in  which,  to  any  extent,  nations  and  indi- 
viduals had  put  their  best  thought.  Other  subjects  were  incidental  or 
had  suffered  long  lapses.  Since  that  period  other  subjects  have  received 
the  best  the  classics  contributed  and  have  added  to  this  from  spontaneous 
development  in  the  special  fields  in  which  they  apply.  Hence  other 
culture-disciplinary  subjects  have  arisen.  They  are  such  because  of  the 
thought,  effort,  and  system  put  into  them.  Any  one  may  well  be 
enthusiastic  over  his  subject  and  make  it  a  real  culture  subject. 
President  Eliot  was  not  fanciful  when  he  said  that  manual  training 
offered  as  much  discipline  as  the  classics.  His  view  of  the  subject  was 
a  broad  one.  In  fact,  if  we  take  up  any  of  the  subjects  that  have  come, 
whether  lightly  or  heavily,  into  the  program,  and  look  beyond  the 
formal  side  and  the  bare  facts  that  it  involves  in  its  narrowest  aspect, — 
if  we  see  its  human  relations,  its  history,  its  place  in  history,  its  correla- 
tions, in  a  word  its  cultural  relations, —  then  its  place  in  a  curriculum, 
whether  we  look  at  it  from  the  point  of  view  of  information,  or  from 
that  of  culture  and  training,  will  take  on  new  force  and  meaning. 

9  Emphasis  in  this  discussion  is  on  the  group.  What  is  true  of  the 
group  is  more  impressively  true  of  individual  studies.  They  cannot 
support  their  traditional  claims  to  extravagant  training  value  in  certain 
directions.  Note  here  the  tendency  to  question  the  validity  of  algebra 
and  geometry  in  some  curricula  (those  for  girls),  and  elsewhere. 

10  It  is  generally  stated  in  another  form :  —  Special  training  does  not 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     375 

only  they  approach  the  truth  from  different  directions  and  so 
present  different  sides  of  it.  The  principle  is  self-evident  now, 
but  the  educational  world  thought  the  reverse  for  a  long  time, 
because  educational  experience  was  narrow  and  experimental 
psychology  had  not  come. 

Two  corollaries  follow  from  this  principle  or  double  prin- 
ciple: 1.  Training,  to  be  effective,  must  be  many-sided.  2. 
A  person  is  not  a  real  or  trustworthy  expert  who  knows  no 
other  line  of  work  or  thought  but  his  own,  who  has  not  wide 
correlated  knowledge.     Over-specialization  defeats  its  own  end. 

3.  The  individual  the  unit. —  A  third  principle  is  coming 
into  emphasis  :  —  Not  the  mass  or  the  class,  but  the  individual  is 
the  real  unit.  The  individual  is  the  final  reservoir  of  strength, 
and  it  is  his  interest  that  must  be  determined  and  met,  if  the 
native  strength  of  a  community  is  to  be  realized.  Mass  teach- 
ing is  wasteful,  because  it  produces  so  many  dwarfs. 

Individual  adjustment  the  key. —  Individual  adjustment, 
adjustment  to  individuals  and  individual  situations,  is  thus  to 
be  the  key  to  the  organization  of  curricula,  and  the  same  key 
will  apply  to  method,  which  will  be  considered  farther  on. 
This  is  the  real  meaning  of  election  and  its  successors,  educa- 
tional guidance  and  vocational  guidance,  which  are  the  media 
through  which  the  individual  needs  of  the  adolescent  are  to  be 
satisfied.  This  principle  is  supported  by  the  other  principles  of 
secondary  education  that  guide  and  define  it.  Adjustment  is 
not  a  simple  matter.  Mere  likes  and  dislikes  may  be  only  sur- 
face matters  or  imaginings.  Any  study  may  be  made  to  appeal 
to  the  normal  adolescent.  It  depends  upon  finding  the  point 
of  contact,  which  in  turn  depends  upon  our  knowledge  of  the 
adolescent  and  our  method  of  presenting  the  subject.11  To 
make  a  pupil  strong  we  do  not  need  a  multitude  of  subjects, 

give  general  ability.  Stated  in  this  way  it  is  liable  to  misinterpreta- 
tion, because  there  are  so  many  seemingly  contradictory  facts.  In- 
terpreted in  an  extreme  way,  as  has  sometimes  been  done,  it  is  essen- 
tially untrue.  The  principle  represents  an  historical  fact.  It  is  clearer 
and  more  impressive  historically  than  pedagogically. 

11  If,  after  all,  there  is  found  to  be  a  persistent  antagonism  to  a  sub- 
ject it  simply  means  that  the  nascent  period  for  awakening  an  interest 
has  been  passed,  or  has  not  yet  been  reached.  Perhaps  some  blunder, 
some  poor  teaching  in  the  initial  presentation  of  the  subject,  has 
closed  the  door,  or  made  it  very  difficult  to  open  it. 


376  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

but  close  association  with  great  departments  of  knowledge  and 
work.     In  fact  multitude  would  defeat  our  purpose. 

Broadening  of  choice. —  With  the  increase  of  subjects  and 
curricula  wide  choices  are  open.  At  the  present  time  the  prin- 
ciple of  choice  is  generously  applied  between  curricula,  but 
more  sparingly  allowed  within  curricula,  sometimes  not  at  all. 
It  is  rather  common  to  specify  groups  of  allied  subjects  from 
which  choice  may  be  made.  The  advance  is  to  be  in  the  direc- 
tion of  wider  and  wiser  choices  within  curricula,  so  as  to  secure 
better  adjustments. 

Reform  in  terminology. —  The  development  of  studies  and 
curricula  will  be  accompanied  by  a  revision  of  terminology, 
making  it  more  exact  and  scientific.  Requirements  and  regula- 
tions will  thus  be  stated  more  uniformly,  and  plans  and  reports 
will  be  more  easily  interpreted.  At  present,  as  already  shown, 
units  of  work  take  the  place  of  fixed  courses,  but  a  glance  at 
current  curricula12  shows  that  there  is  no  uniform  mode  of 
naming  these  units.  Sometimes  they  are  spoken  of  as  hours, 
sometimes  as  points,  sometimes  as  credits,  sometimes  as  units. 
It  is,  however,  fairly  easy  to  make  out  that  on  the  average  re- 
quirements for  graduation  are  sixteen  courses,  each  course  rep- 
resenting five  prepared  exercises  each  week  for  thirty-six  weeks, 
i.e.,  sixteen  units  of  work.  It  is  neither  necessary  nor  desir- 
able that  the  quantity  should  be  specifically  the  same  in  all 
schools  or  in  all  localities,  but  it  is  desirable  that  when  talking 
or  writing  on  these  matters  we  should  use  the  same  terms  and 
that  the  terms  should  have  a  uniform  value.13 

While  election  and  the  unit  idea  of  measuring  results  and 
qualifications  have  served  the  cause  of  individual  adjustment, 
they  have  also  undoubtedly  had  the  effect  of  toning  up  the 
weaker  courses, —  strengthening  their  subject  matter  and  the 
methods  of  teaching  them.  Reform  in  one  part  of  a  system  in 
a  way  reforms  all. 

The  new  century's  inheritance  and  problems. —  The  de- 
velopment of  high  school  problems  and  curricula  in  the  nine- 

12  See  appendix. 

13  Dr.  Charles  Hughes  Johnston,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  has 
done  some  pioneer  work  in  this  direction  that  ought  to  pave  the  way  for 
reform.     See  page  304. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     377 

teenth  century  showed  specifically  and  vividly  the  wonderful 
expansion  of  secondary  school  ideas.  Growth,  however,  was 
feverish  and  without  settled  aims.  The  twentieth  century  will 
systematize  the  scattered  results  of  the  nineteenth  century  and 
apply  secondary  school  principles  more  exactly.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  new  century  is  evidently  to  be  more  scientific,  more 
definite,  more  aimful.  It  is  to  be  based  on  finer  generalizations 
from  a  broader  and  more  accurate  knowledge  of  high  school 
facts  and  relations,  and  a  more  scientific  knowledge  of  the 
characteristics  of  high  school  pupils. 

APPENDIX 
TYPICAL  HIGH  SCHOOL  CURRICULA  AND  PROGRAMS. 

Basis  of  choice. — The  aim  in  this  appendix  is  (i)  to  select  current 
curricula  that  represent  types  on  which  school  thought  is  converging; 
(2)  to  present  curricula  that  are  specially  notable,  or  distinctive  and 
suggestive,  but  still  show  the  fundamental  elements  of  the  average 
progressive  school  of  to-day.  These  curricula  show  the  culmination  of 
nineteenth  century  movements  and  suggest  certain  prophecies  for  the  fu- 
ture. The  curricula  of  many  other  schools  equally  interesting  might 
have  been  selected  from  the  large  number  received  from  all  parts  of 
the  country.  The  main  idea  is  to  get  at  types  rather  than  individuals, 
averages  rather  than  special  adaptations  to  local  conditions. 

1.  Successors  of  the  old  classical  curriculum. —  The  classical  cur- 
ricula, the  successors  to  the  secondary  curricula  from  which  all  modern 
curricula  are  descended,  will  naturally  be  the  first  to  be  noted. 

(a)  An  Eastern  Classical  High  School, — exclusively  a  college  prepar- 
atory school,  offering  the  standard  classical  curriculum  approved  by 
leading  colleges  and  universities.  The  curriculum  is  arranged  for  six 
years,  thus  showing  its  relation  to  the  old  European  Grammar  Schools 
that  took  the  boy  at  nine  and  started  him  early  in  Latin,  or  rather 
Latin  grammar.  It  is  also  arranged  for  four  years  for  those  who  have 
covered  the  two  preliminary  years  in  the  elementary  school. 

A  Six-Year  Curriculum 

Periods  Periods 

First  Year  (Class  VI.).    per  Week.  Second  Year  (Class  V.).  per  Week. 

English  S  or  6  English 5  or  6 

Latin  5  Latin  5 

Arithmetic    and    Geom-  Arithmetic    and    Geom- 
etry      5  etry   5 

History 2  or  3  History 2  or  3 

Geography  2  Geography 2 

Physiology 2  Elementary  Science  ...  2 


37» 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Periods 
First  Year  (Class  VI.) .    per  Week. 

Physical  Training 2 

Choral  Practice None  or  I 

24  or  25 

Periods 
Third  Year  (Class  IV.).  per  Week. 

English 4 

Latin  5 

French    4 

Mathematics   4 

History 3  or  4 

Elementary  Science  ...   ior2 

Physical  Training 2 

Choral  Practice None  or  1 

24  or  25 

Periods 
Fifth  Year  (Class  II.).     per  Week. 

English 3 

Latin  4  or  5 

French    3 

Greek  or  German 5 

Mathematics     3  or  4 

History    3 

Physical  Training    ....  2 

Choral   Practice    None  or  1 

24  or  25 


Periods 
Second  Year  (Class  V.)  .per  Week. 

Physical   Training    ....  2 
Choral  Practice None  or  1 


24  or  25 


Periods 
Fourth  Year  (Class III.),     per 

Week. 

English    3  or  4 

Latin     4  or  5 

French    3 

Greek  or  German 5 

Mathematics     3  or  4 

History    2  or  3 

Physical   Training    ....  2 
Choral  Practice None  or  1 


24  or  25 

Periods 
Sixth  Year  (Class I.),      per  Week. 

English    4 

Latin    5 

Greek  or  German    ....  5 

Mathematics     4 

Physics     5 

Physical  Training    ....  2 


25 


Four- Year  Curriculum 


Periods 
First  Year  (Class  IV.).    per  Week. 

English    4  or  s 

Latin     6  or  7 

French    4 

Mathematics     4 

History    3  or  4 

Physical  Training 2 

Choral   Practice    None  or  1 


25 

Periods 
Third  Year  (Class  II.) .    per  Week. 

English    3 

Latin  5 

French    3 

Greek  or  German   ....  5 


Periods 
Second  Year  (Class  III.) .per  Week 

English  3 

Latin  5  or  6 

French    3 

Greek  or  German 5 

Mathematics    3  or  4 

History 2  or  3 

Physical  Training 2 

Choral    Practice    None  or  1 

25 

Periods 
Fourth  Year  ( Class  I.),   per  Week. 

English 4 

Latin   5 

Greek  or  German  5 

Mathematics   4 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA 


379 


Periods 
Third  Year  ( Class  II. ) .    per  Week. 

Mathematics    3or4 

History    3 

Physical  Training 2 

Choral  Practice None  or  I 


Periods 
Fourth  Year  (Class I.),    per  Week. 

Physics 5 

Physical  Training 2 


25 


25 


(b)  Another  Eastern  High  School  has  a  double  classical  curriculum, 
one  of  four  years,  and  the  other  of  five  years  (evidently  for  those 
who  need  wider  and  longer  preparation  for  college  work).  Still 
another  high  school  from  the  same  section  offers  a  five-year  and  a  four- 
year  curriculum,  and  a  second  five-year  curriculum  for  those  who  wish 
to  take  a  longer  time  for  the  work  of  the  four-year  curriculum. 

(c)  A  Western  High  School  offers  an  enterprising  curriculum  of 
four  years  and  a  two-year  addition  that  prepares  for  advanced  work 
in  the  university  or  gives  special  opportunities  for  extended  training 
for  those  who  cannot  undertake  college  work.  The  curriculum  is  as 
follows : 


Classical  Curriculum 


B9^ 


A9-^ 


BIO 


A  1<H 


i  English 

2  Latin 

3  Greek  History 

4  Physical  Geography  * 

5  Chorus,  Drawing,  Music 
.     (2),  o 

i  Continue  B9 

2  Continue  Bg 

3  Roman  History 

4  Continue  Bg 

5  Continue  Bg 

1  English 

2  Algebra 

3  Latin 

4  Greek 

5  Chorus      (2),     Drawing 
(3),      Expression      (2), 
Music      (2),      Debating 

k     (2)  0 

1  Continue  Bio 

2  Continue  Bio 

3  Continue  Bio 

4  Continue  Bio 
L5  Continue  Bio  0 

Blli 


All 


1  English  Bn,  An,  or  B12 

2  Geometry 

3  Latin 

4  Greek 

5  Chorus  (2),  Drawing 
(5),  Expression  (2),  De- 
bating (2),  Music,  Jour- 
nalism (2)  o 

1  Geometry 

2  Latin 
3V  Greek 

4  Physics,  Household 
Physics,  Chemistry  or 
Domestic  Chemistry 
(B12) 

5  Expression  or  Debating 
required  if  not  taken  be- 
fore 


B12 


Latin 

Greek 

Physics,      Household 

Physics,     Chemistry    or 

Domestic    Chemistry 

(A12) 

American  History 

Expression,       Debating, 

Journalism  (2)  o 


38o 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


B13 
and 
A  13 


A  12 


i  English 

2  Latin 

3  Greek 

4  Civics 

5  Expression  or  Debating 
(2)  if  not  taken  before. 


English  Composition, 
History  of  England, 
French,  Spanish,  German, 
Music,  Latin  (Cicero  de 
Senectute,  Pliny,  Livy, 
Plautus),  Greek  (Plato's 
Apology  and  Crito,  Ho- 
mer's Odyssey),  Greek  and 
Latin  Composition,  Solid 
Geometry,  Trigonometry, 
Analytics,  Logic,  Physics 
(Mechanics  and  Heat), 
Chemistry  ( Qualita- 
tive Analysis,  Lectures  on 
General  Chemistry),  Bot- 
any, Zoology,  Physical 
Culture,  Playground. 


B14 
and 
A  14 


English  Literature,  His- 
tory of  Europe  since  1815, 
Oriental  History,  Econom- 
ics, Psychology,  French, 
Spanish,  German,  Latin 
(Horace,  Tacitus),  Greek 
(Euripides),  Greek  _  and 
Latin  Composition,  Higher 
Algebra,  Calculus,  Phys- 
ics (Electricity  and  Mag- 
netism, Sound,  Light), 
Chemistry  (Quantitative 
Analysis),  General  Inor- 
ganic, General  Organic, 
Organic  Laboratory,  Agri- 
cultural Chemistry,  As- 
tronomy, Geology,  Phys- 
ical Culture. 


o  Subjects  so  marked  may  be  omitted. 

1.  There  are  five  recitations  a  week  in  each  subject  except  in  those 
otherwise  designated. 

2.  Sixteen  units  of  work  are  required  for  a  diploma.  One  unit  rep- 
resents a  year  of  work  in  a  subject  taken  five  times  a  week. 

3.  Physical  Culture  two  periods  each  week  is  required  in  every  grade 
in  addition  to  the  sixteen  units  mentioned  above.  Military  drill  is  the 
form  of  physical  culture  required  of  boys  of  the  tenth  grade. 

4.  Pupils  from  other  accredited  schools  will  be  credited  with  all  work 
completed. 

2.  General  curricula:  — 
(a)  An  Eastern  High  School. 


Program  of  Studies 
First  Year 


♦English  I  

♦Latin  I,  or  German  I,  or  French  I 

♦Mathematics  I,  Algebra  

♦Science  I,  Biology,  including  Botany,  Zoology  and  Phys- 
iology     

♦Drawing  I  


^ 

<L> 

0  > 

c 

•-   u 

V  <u 

0 

CL.Pl, 

fc 

5 

10 

5 

10 

5 

10 

5 

10 

2 

2 

STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA  381 


T3     >  OT 

O   >  *• 

l-    u  .5 

V    U  O 

(UP*  P-> 

♦Music  I   1  1 

♦Physical  Training  I   2  2 

*tEnglish  VI,  Elocution  I  1  1 

INote. —  A  continuation  of  the  course  in   Elocution  is  also  offered 

through  the  second,  third  and  fourth  years.    When  so  taken  add  one 
point  per  year. 

Second  Year 

*English    II    3  6 

♦Latin  II,  German  II,  or  French  II u 5  10 

*Mathematics  II,  Plane  Geometry  4  8 

♦History  I   (Greece  and  Rome)    3  6 

Greek  I 5  10 

Italian  I  5  10 

Spanish  I 5  10 

tScience  II,  Chemistry 5  10 

♦Drawing  II  2  2 

♦Music  II I  1 

♦Physical  Training  II   2  2 

♦♦Domestic  Science  (for  girls)    4  4 

Physiography   4  8 

tNoiE. —  Science  II,  Chemistry,  may  also  be  taken  in  the  fourth  year. 
♦♦Note. —  In  the  course  offered  to  girls,  Sewing  —  4  periods  per  week, 
is  an  elective. 

Third  Year 

♦English  III  3  6 

*Latin  III,  German  III,  or  French  III    5  10 

♦History  II  (England)   2  4 

Science  III,  Physics 5  10 

tMathematics  III,  Algebra,  Review  and  Advance 2  4 

tMathematics  IV,  Plane  Geometry,  Review  and  Advance            2  4 

Greek  II 4  8 

Italian  II  4  8 

Spanish  II  4  8 

Stenography  and  Typewriting  I  4  4 

Bookkeeping  I   3  3 

Economics  I   3  6 

tScience  IV,  Botany,  Advance 4  8 

tScience  V,  Zoology,  Advance 4  8 

Music  III 1  1 

Drawing  III  1  1 

♦Physical  Training 2  2 

tNoTE. —  Either  course  in  Mathematics,  Science  IV,  Botany,  Advance, 
and  Science  V,  Zoology,  Advance,  may  also  be  taken  in  the  fourth  year. 

Note. —  In  the  course  offered  to  girls,  Cooking,  4  periods  per  week,  and 
Millinery,  3  periods  per  week,  are  electives. 


382  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Fourth  Year 

^3    >  to 

o  >  *i 

4;  <u  o 

P-iPm  fU 

*English  IV 3  6 

Latin  IV,  German  IV,  or  French  IV 4  8 

Greek  III  4  8 

Italian  III   4  8 

Spanish  III  4  8 

Latin  V,  Additional  and  Supplementary  Courses 3  6 

Greek  IV,  Additional  and  Supplementary  Courses  ....  3  6 

English  V,  Additional  and  Supplementary  Courses  ...  3  6 

Science  VI,  Physiography  4  8 

*History  III,  American  History  and  Civics,  Related  Eng- 
lish History 4  8 

Mathematics  V,  Advanced  Mathematics 4  8 

Stenography  and  Typewriting  II   3  3 

**Domestic  Science  I 3  6 

Commercial  Law  and  Commercial  Geography 3  6 

History  IV  (Mediaeval  and  Modern)  3  6 

Music  IV 1  1 

Drawing  IV   -  1  1 

*  Physical  Training  IV   2  2 

**Note. —  In  the  course  offered  to  girls,  Dressmaking,  4  periods  per 
week,  is  an  elective. 

"  Students  following  this  program  shall  present  for  graduation  the 
satisfactory  completion  of  the  required  work  in  subjects  starred  above 
and  shall  be  given  credit  for  the  number  of  points  indicated  upon  the 
satisfactory  completion  of  each  subject.  The  requirement  for  gradua- 
tion shall  be  the  satisfactory  completion  of  work  aggregating  150 
points  and  the  passing  of  such  examinations  as  shall  be  set." 

(c)  A  High  School  in  the  West:  — 

"  Note  —  No  one  shall  be  graduated  who  has  not  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted all  the  work  required  in  one  of  the  four  lines  of  work:  the 
Academic,  including  the  Commercial ;  the  Manual  Training ;  the  Techni- 
cal; or  that  of  the  School  of  Trades. 

"  In  any  curriculum  except  the  Technical  or  Trade  sixteen  units  are 
required  for  graduation  and  at  least  twelve  of  these  units  must  be 
earned  in  academic  subjects.  The  first  two  years'  work  in  Drawing, 
one  of  free-hand  and  one  of  mechanical,  two  periods  per  week  each 
year,  is  required  for  graduation  and  is  equivalent  to  a  half  unit.  The 
other  three  and  one-half  units  may  be  made  by  work  in  elective  academic 
subjects  or  in  unprepared  work  as  defined  below: 

"  Two  periods  of  work  in  unprepared  subjects  are  equivalent  to  one 
period  in  prepared  work.  Work  in  the  following  subjects  is  considered 
unprepared  work:  Manual  Training,  Drawing,  Typewriting,  Laboratory 
Work." 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA 


383 


Academic  Curriculum 


Grade 


IX 


X 


XI 


Term 


Prescribed  Work 

English    *5 

Algebra    5 

f  Ancient   History. . .  .4 
Drawing    2 

English  5 

Algebra    5 

t Ancient   History.  . .  .4 
Drawing    2 

English 5 

Plane    Geometry 5 

Drawing 2 

English 5 

Plane    Geometry 5 

Drawing 2 


$  Physics 


$  Physics 


Electives 
elect  one 

Latin    . , 5 

German    5 

Elementary  Science   4 

Elementary     Science     (First 
Term),       4;       Arithmetic 

(Second  Term)   5 

Manual  Training   10 


elect  two 

Latin     5 

German    5 

French    5 

Greek    5 

English   History    4 

Bookkeeping     5 

Botany    4 

'Typewriting    5 

Manual  Training   10 


elect  three 

English     5 

Latin     5 

German    5 

French    5 

Greek    5 

Spanish     5 

Mediaeval   and   Modern   His- 
tory   5 

Zoology  and    Physiology....  5 
Algebra    (First  Term),   ....  5 
Solid     Geometry     (Second 
Term),  4;   or  plane  Ge- 
ometry (Second  Term).  5 
Bookkeeping    (First  Term)  ; 
Banking  and    Office    Prac- 
tice  (Second  Term) 5 

Stenography     5 

Typewriting    5 

Drawing,    Optional    2 

Manual  Training    10 


*  The  figure  after  a  subject  denotes  the  number  of  periods  given  to 
that  subject  weekly;  an  academic  subject  taken  four  or  five  hours  per 
week  for  one  year  is  credited  as  one  unit  toward  graduation. 


384 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Grade 


XII 


Term 


Prescribed  Work 


English 
^Chemistry 


English 
$  Chemistry 


Electives 

ELECT  THREE 

Latin  5 

German    5 

French    5 

Greek    5 

Spanish    5 

American  History  and  Civics  5 

Chemistry    5 

Psychology  and  Economics..  5 
Geology  and  Astronomy....  5 
Trigonometry    (First  Term)  4 
Advanced  Algebra  or  Analy- 
tical    Geometry      (Second 

Term)     4 

Commercial  Law  (First 
Term)  ;  and  Commercial 
Geography   (2d  Term)....  5 

Stenography    5 

Typewriting    5 

Manual   Training    10 


3.  Commercial  curricula:  — 

(a)  A  High  School  of  Commerce  in  a  large  New  England  city. 

"Purpose. —  The  purpose  of  the  High  School  of  Commerce  is  to 
give  a  special  training  that  will  help  its  graduates  to  find  employment 
in  the  business  world,  and,  also,  to  give  a  general  training  that  will 
aid  these  graduates  to  earn  promotion  to  the  more  responsible  business 
positions  and  equip  them  for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  Special  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  development  of  habits  of  punctuality,  industry,  self- 
reliance,  and  trustworthiness,  as  these  qualities  are  absolutely  essential 
to  the  highest  success  in  the  business  world. 

"  The  curriculum  has  not  been  planned  to  meet  the  requirements  for 
admission  to  college,  but  the  school  does  prepare  young  women  to  enter 
the  Secretarial  School  of  Simmons  College  and  young  men  to  enter 
the  School  of  Commerce,  Accounts,  and  Finance  of  New  York  Uni- 
versity and  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  This  makes  it  possible  for  any  graduate  of  the  school, 
if  he  so  desires,  to  secure  a  college  education." 

First  Year 


First  Semester 

English     5 

Science  5 

Penmanship    and               ) 
Commercial     Arithmetic  J     •  •  •  •  5 
Local  History,  Government, ) 
and    Industries                         ) 
Physical  Training 2 


Second  Semester 

English     5 

Science   5 

Penmanship    and  ) 

Commercial     Arithmetic  y         '  * 

Bookkeeping  5 

Physical  Training 2 


Total 22 


Total  22 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA 


385 


Second  Year 


First  Semester 


English    $ 

General  History 5 

Bookkeeping  5 

Commercial  Geography 5 

Physical  Training 2 


Total 22 


Second  Semester 


English    5 

General  History 5 

Bookkeeping    and  ^ 

Office  Practice        }  '    •* 

Commercial  Geography 5 

Physical   Training    2 

Total  22 


Third  Year 


First  Semester 

English  5 

American  History 5 

Optionals   10 

Physical   Training    2 


Total 


.22 


Second  Semester 

English     5 

Civil  Government   5 

Optionals   10 

Physical  Training 2 

Total 22 


Fourth  Year 


First  Semester 

English     5 

Political  Economy   5 

Optionals   10 


Total 


.20 


Second  Semester 

English     5 

Commercial  Law 5 

Accounting  and  { 

Office   Methods    ) 

Optionals   10 

Total  25 


Optionals  for  Third  and  Fourth  Years 


Stenography   5 

Typewriting    5 

Commercial    History  1  - 

and  Finance  ) "  ** 

Drawing  5 

Algebra  5 


Geometry  5 

Physics  5 

Chemistry    5 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  5 

French    5 

German    5 


The  figure  after  the  name  of  each  subject  indicates  the  number 
of  recitations  per  week  in  the  subject. 

(b)  Another  New  England  city  offers  a  broader  curriculum  with 
a  large  number  of  electives,  though  with  rather  limited  opportunity  to 
apply  the  elective  principle.  Some  of  the  subjects  that  are  elective  in 
(a)  are  required  in  this  curriculum. 

(c)  A  city  in  the  Pacific  Section  offers  a  curriculum  which  is  entirely 
elective  and  so  gives  wide  opportunity  for  individual  adjustment.  See 
also  the  program  of  studies  under  8. 

4.  Vocational  curricula:  — 

(a)  A  High  School  in  an  Eastern  city. 


386 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Boys 


Third  Year 

Machine  Shop  (l/2  year)   10 

Any   Shop    (l/2  year)    10 

Drawing    4 

Practical   Mathematics    5 

English   4 

Physics  or  Chemistry  5 

Fourth  Year 

Any  Shop  (J4  year)    io 

Drafting   {%  year)    4 

Any  Shop  or  Drafting 20 

Practical  Mathematics 5 

English     3 

U.    S.    History   and    Civics    (l/2 
year)    5 

Note  :  —  The  above  course  is  intended  for  students  who  wish  to  fit 
themselves  for  a  definite  vocation. 


First  Year 

Joinery    {}A    year)     6 

Sheet  Metal  (l/2  year)   4 

Turning    and    Pattern    Making, 

and   Foundry    10 

Drawing     5 

Practical  Mathematics 5 

English    4 

Second  Year 

Forge  Shop   (l/2  year) 6 

Sheet  Metal  (l/2  year)    4 

Machine  Shop   10 

Drawing    5 

Practical  Mathematics 5 

English  4 

Natural   Science    3 


Girls 

First  Year 

English  4 

Natural   Science    5 

Cooking  and  Sewing  6 

Applied  Art   4 

Select  One: 

German  or  French  5 

Arithmetic  or  Algebra   5 


Third  Year 

English 4 

Hygiene  and  Home  Sanitation.  5 

Millinery    6 

Invalid  Cooking 4 

Select  One: 

Applied  Art   4 

German   or   French    5 

Chemistry    5 


Second  Year 

English  4 

Chemistry  of  Foods  and  Cook- 
ing   6 

Dressmaking 4 

Designing    4 

Select  One: 

German  or  French  5 

Physics  5 

History 5 


Fourth  Year 

English  4 

Art   History   5 

Select  three: 

Biology 5 

German  or  French  5 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics 5 

Dressmaking 6 

Millinery    6 

Applied  Art 6 

Any  Household  Art  or  Science.  6 


Any  subject  of  General  Course  5 

(b)  The  following  curriculum  of  a  Manual  Training  High  School 
in  a  Middle  West  city  shows  the  possibilities  of  curriculum-making  in 
various  vocational  directions  by  a  skilful  coordination  of  required  and 
elective  work  under  educational  guidance.  Studies  in  capital  letters 
are  prescribed  and  are  to  be  taken  in  the  order  given.  Thirty-one 
credits  are  required  for  graduation,  a  credit  standing  for  five  class 
exercises  of  prepared  work  per  week  for  a  half  year. 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA 


387 


First  Year 


English  I 
Algebra  I 
Latin  I 
German  I 
Am.  History  la 

History   I 

(Grecian) 
Physical 

Training  I 
Woodworking  I 

(Bench   Work) 

Freehand 

Drawing  Is 
(For  Shop 

Pupils) 
Freehand 

Drawing  I 
Sewing  I 
Music 


English  II 
Algebra  II 
Latin  II 
German  II 
Am.  History 

Ha* 
History  II 

(Roman) 
Physical 

Training  II* 
Woodworking 

II 
(Wood 

Turning) 
Freehand 

Drawing  lis 


Freehand 

Drawing  II 
Sewing  II* 
Music 


Secona 

Year 

English  III 

English  IV 

Plane  Ge- 

Plane Geom.  II 

ometry  I 

Latin  III 

Latin  IV 

German  III 

German  IV 

Civics 

History  III 

History  IV* 

(Mediaeval) 

(Modern) 

Botany  I 

Botany  II* 

Forging  I 

Forging  II 

Mechanical 

Mechanical 

Drawing  I 

Drawing  II 

Freehand 

Freehand 

Drawing  III 

Drawing  IV* 

Cooking  I 

Cooking  II* 

Sewing  III 

Sewing  IV* 

Commercial 

Bookkeeping  I 

Arithmetic 

Stenography   I 

Stenography  II 

(Including 

Typewriting) 

Third  Year 


Fourth  Year 


English  V 

Algebra  III* 

Latin  V 
German  V 
History  V 

(English) 
Physiography   I 

Physics  I 

Pattern- 
Making  I 

(Including 

Foundry) 

Mechanical 
Drawing  III 

Freehand 

Drawing  V 

Cooking  III 

Sewing  V 

Bookkeeping  II 

Stenography  III 

(Including 
Typewriting) 


English  VI 
Business  Comp. 
Arithmetic 
Solid  Geometry 
Latin  VI 
German  VI 
History  VI* 

(English) 
Physiography 

II* 
Physics  II* 
Pattern- 
Making  II 
(Including 

Foundry) 
Mechanical 

Drawing  IV 
Freehand 

Drawing  VI 
Cooking  iV 

Bookkeeping 

III 
Stenography 

IV* 
(Including 
Typewriting) 


Composition 

VII* 
Literature  VII 
Trigonometry 
Latin  VII 
German  VII 
History  VII 

(American) 
Applied 

Electricity 
Chemistry  I 
Machine- 
Fitting  I 
Mechanical 

Drawing  V 
or 
Architectural 

Drawing  Va 
Freehand 

Drawing  VII 

Physiology 
Bookkeeping 

IV* 
Business  Law 
Stenography  V 


Composition 

VIII 
Literature  VIII 
Higher  Algebra 
Latin  VIII* 
German  VIII* 
History  VIII* 
(American) 


Chemistry  II* 
Machine- 
Fitting  II* 
Mechanical 
Drawing  VI* 
or 
Architectural 

Drawing  Via* 
Freehand 

Drawing  VIII 
Hygiene  and 
Home  Nursing 


388 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


(c)  Another  Middle  West  city  offers  elaborate  curricula,  with  re- 
quired work  and  optionals,  as  follows :  —  A  two-year  teachers'  pre- 
paratory curriculum ;  a  four-year  commercial  curriculum ;  a  four-year 
office  preparatory  curriculum ;  a  four-year  technical  curriculum,  for 
boys ;  a  four-year  technical  curriculum,  for  girls ;  a  four-year  general 
trades  curriculum;  a  four-year  "arts"  curriculum;  a  four-year  archi- 
tectural curriculum;  four-year  curricula  in  household  arts,  household 
science,  and  art;  two-year  curricula  in  the  following, —  accounting, 
stenography,  mechanical  drawing,  design,  pattern-making,  machine  shop, 
carpentry,  electricity,  household  arts,  printing,  horticulture. 

(d)  The  most  interesting  vocational  school  discovered  is  found  in 
a  modest  Massachusetts  city, —  interesting  because  'of  the  suggestive 
and  skilful  manner  in  which  it  enforces  fundamental  principles.  In 
the  first  place  it  is  interesting  to  find  that  educational  guidance  steadies 
and  fortifies  the  new  high  school  pupil  by  prescribing  that  in  all  voca- 
tional curricula,  except  the  commercial  (as  well  as  in  other  high  school 
curricula),  the  normal  number  of  class-room  subjects  in  the  first  year 
shall  be  three.    As  to  vocational  curricula  the  school  authorities  say :  — 

"  While  the  curricula  are  so  planned  that  in  four  years  a  student 
devotes  as  much  time  to  work  in  English,  history,  civics,  mathematics, 
and  related  science  as  would  be  given  to  this  work  in  most  high  schools, 
it  does  not  fit  for  college,  but  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it  applies  di- 
rectly to  the  industry  for  which  the  curriculum  is  preparing.  Thus 
the  student  can  obtain  the  theory  of  his  special  line  of  work  together 
with  a  general  training  which  will  enable  him  to  go  as  far  as  his  ability 
will  allow  in  the  industry  he  chooses.  What  he  gains  in  the  school 
will  also  tend  to  make  him  a  more  desirable  citizen. 

"  The  school  day  for  the  vocational  curricula  is  from  8:30  to  3 :  15  with 
30  minutes  for  lunch.  Half  of  the  day  is  devoted  to  shop  work  and 
the  other  half  to  the  related  academic  or  book  work  mentioned  above. 
Only  boys  and  girls  who  are  willing  to  work  hard  are  advised  to  elect 
these  curricula.  Pupils  are  advanced  individually  as  rapidly  as  they 
are  capable  of  promotion  and  those  who  come  with  excellent  grammar 
school  records  will  find  large  openings  with  good  prospects  in  the  in- 
dustries for  which  the  curricula  train. 

"  When  a  student  elects  a  curriculum,  the  related  academic  work,  to 
which  one-half  of  the  time  is  devoted,  is  prescribed  and  must  be  fol- 
lowed unless  a  special  request  is  made  by  the  parents  that  a  student 
be  allowed  to  give  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  his  time  to  shop  work.  This  is 
allowed  when  students  can  remain  in  the  school  for  only  a  year  or  two. 
In  all  cases,  however,  some  mechanical  drawing  and  the  full  course  in 
mathematics  are  required.  With  the  above  exception,  all  boys  have 
four  years  of  English,  history,  civics,  economics,  mathematics,  drawing 
and  related  science." 

Mathematics,  English,  science,  and  drawing  are  not  taught  ab- 
stractly, but  are  correlated  with  the  different  curricula  in  the  technical 
school.  Each  of  these  studies  has  a  phase  for  each  curriculum,  so 
that  the  study  is  made  concrete  and  has  the  clearness  incident  to  its 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA  389 

special  applications  to  the  special  object  that  the  pupil  is  pursuing, 
whether  machine  work,  electricity,  pattern-making,  or  printing. 

The  shop  work  applicable  to  each  curriculum  is  laid  out  with  ad- 
mirable appreciation  of  the  needs  of  the  pupils  electing  these  different 
curricula. 

The  same  general  plan  is  followed  for  the  household-science-and-art 
curricula  for  girls. 

(e)  Equally  interesting  is  the  fine  arts  curriculum  offered  in  the 
same  school.  A  few  quotations  from  a  descriptive  booklet  will  show 
its  purposes  and  aims. 

"  Fortunate  is  the  pupil,  who,  at  the  age  of  thirteen  of  fourteen,  has 
a  peculiar  natural  ability  for  any  one  special  line  of  work.  If  the 
future  offers  adequate  financial  returns  for  the  effort  expended  in  adult 
life  in  this  profession  or  trade,  every  encouragement  should  be  given 
the  student  to  further  his  education  in  the  specialty  in  which  he  prom- 
ises to  succeed. 

"  Those  educators  who  have  made  it  their  business  to  study  the 
education  of  the  past  and  of  the  present  are  agreed  that  the  high  school 
is  the  place  for  the  beginning  of  such  specialization.  There  are  some 
things  which  the  pupil  must  learn  in  his  teens,  or  he  will  never  learn 
them.  Every  adult  knows  there  are  processes  that  now  he  can  never 
learn  to  do  well ;  he  has  passed  the  time  in  life  when  he  can  acquire 
certain  skill,  especially  in  using  his  hands. 

"  A  study  of  the  biographies  of  the  notable  artists  and  craftsmen 
reveals  the  fact  that  these  men  and  women  showed  an  inclination  to 
work  in  their  art  or  craft  by  the  time  they  were  twelve  years  of  age. 
History  repeats  itself  in  the  case  of  every  boy  or  girl,  who,  at 
the  time  of  entrance  into  the  high  school,  displays  more  interest,  pleas- 
ure, and  ability  in  drawing  than  in  the  other  studies.  It  is  for  pupils 
who  have  this  love  and  natural  ability  for  art  work  that  the  Fine  Arts 
curriculum  has  been  established  in  the  Technical  High  School.  It  may 
be  noted,  that  so  far  as  the  school  authorities  know,  it  was  the  first 
Fine  Arts  curriculum  to  be  established  in  a  high  school.  There  are 
now  several  similar  curricula  in  other  city  high  schools  throughout  the 
country. 

"  The  Fine  Arts  curriculum  includes  work  in  the  arts,  and  such  gen- 
eral education  as  is  related  to  the  arts.  French,  the  language  of  the  art 
world ;  geometry  dealing  with  areas  and  shapes ;  history  of  the  great 
art  periods  of  the  past;  English  as  an  art  of  expression  in  written  and 
spoken  forms;  science  dealing  with  the  understanding  of  light  and 
color,  enamels,  dyes,  paints,  etc.;  biology  relating  to  life  structures; 
music  as  the  most  emotional  of  the  arts;  modelling  in  clay  including 
designing,  glazing  and  firing;  design  and  applied  art  in  copper,  brass, 
silver,  leather  and  textiles;  freehand  drawing  in  pencil,  crayons,  water 
colors  and  oil  paints ;  out-door  sketching ;  craftswork  in  wood,  includ- 
ing the  making  of  a  studio  easel,  palette  and  paint  box ;  a  four  years' 
course  of  stereopticon  lectures  in  art  appreciation ;  visits  to  galleries  and 
art  museums;  and  for  general  service  in  life,  shop  work  or  household 


390  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

economics,  civics,  and  if  desired,  German;  all  these  make  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  future  arts  and  crafts  worker. 

"  For  what  life  work  does  this  curriculum  prepare  the  students?  The 
following  list  will  be  suggestive: 

Architecture  Fashion  Plate  Making 

Interior  Decoration  Sign  Painting 

Advertising  Design  Illustrating 

Textile  and  Pottery  Design            Lithography 

Engraving  Painting 

Photo-engraving  Sculpture 

The  Teaching  of  Drawing,  Modelling,  and   Painting. 

"As  a  preparation  for  these  trades  and  professions,  which  generally 
offer  liberal  financial  returns  for  the  skilled  artisan,  and  in  which  the 
supply  of  available  labor  does  not  equal  the  demand,  this  is  the  best 
curriculum  for  the  student  to  take.  Also,  all  students  contemplating 
future  study  in  any  art  or  design  school  should  begin  such  study  in 
the  high  school  Fine  Arts  curriculum." 

It  is  particularly  encouraging  to  find  such  progressive  ideas  combined 
with  such  sound  principles  of  teaching  as  are  evident  in  the  last  two 
examples. 

(f)  Agricultural  High  Schools. 

Minnesota,  the  first  State  to  establish  this  type  of  high  school,  sug- 
gests several  standard  curricula  from  which  different  communities  may 
choose  as  best  suits  their  individual  conditions.  The  following  will 
fairly  illustrate  the  type. 

Four- Year  Curriculum  in  Agriculture 

First  Year 

Botany,  one-half  year ;  eight  periods  per  week,  including  laboratory. 

Zoology,  one-half  year. 

Algebra,  five  periods. 

English,  five  periods. 

Manual  training,  ten  periods  per  week. 

Second  Year 

Horticulture,  eight  periods  per  week,  including  laboratory. 
Plane  geometry,  five  periods. 
English,  five  periods. 
Manual  training,  ten  periods. 

Third  Year 

Soils  and  farm  crops,  eight  periods  per  week,  including  laboratory. 

English,  five  periods. 

Physics,  eight  periods  per  week,  including  laboratory. 

Farm  mechanics  and  forge  work,  seven  periods  per  week. 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA  391 

Fourth  Year 
Animal  husbandry,  including  dairying,  eight  periods  per  week. 
English,  five  periods. 

Chemistry,  eight  periods  per  week,  including  laboratory. 
Farm  management. 
Rural  problems. 

Farm  sanitation,  seven  periods  per  week. 
Civics. 

Note. —  This  curriculum  pre-supposes  a  course  in  general  agriculture 
in  the  eighth  grade,  two  periods  per  week,  during  the  year. 

"  Animal  husbandry  is  placed  in  the  last  year,  as  the  pupils  of  this 
vicinity  know  more  of  the  other  subjects  and  are  more  interested  in 
the  garden. 

"  It  is  advisable  to  have  students  as  mature  as  possible  before  taking 
up  the  breeding  and  feeding  of  farm  animals,  as  it  is  a  hard  subject 
to  present  to  immature  students." 

Agricultural  curricula  have  become  very  common.  Some  of  the 
largest  city  high  schools  include  an  agricultural  curriculum  in  their 
program.  It  is  a  most  legitimate  part  of  the  program  of  studies  of 
any  community.  Not  every  high  school  that  offers  an  agricultural  cur- 
riculum, however,  could  be  called  an  agricultural  high  school,  which 
may  be  briefly  described  as  one  that  serves  a  rural  community  and  has 
for  its  center  of  interest  its  agricultural  curriculum,  though  other  cur- 
ricula appear  side  by  side  with  it  in  order  to  meet  the  varied  interests 
of  the  community. 

To  show  how  far  the  influence  of  agricultural  education  extends  and 
how  agriculture  demands  and  appreciates  thorough  education  to  realize 
its  possibilities  the  following  outline  will  be  interesting:  — 

Winter  Curriculum  of  an  Agricultural  High  School 

GENERAL  STATEMENT 

"The  winter  curricula  have  been  planned  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
young  men  and  women  on  the  farms  or  in  town  who  can  not  avail 
themselves  of  the  full  high  school  course.  Any  one  over  fifteen  years 
of  age  may  enroll,  but  more  mature  students,  such  as  those  actually 
engaged  in  farm  and  home  work,  are  desired.  The  regular  work  will 
begin  at  10:15  each  day  and  close  at  2:30.  Students  will  be  given  texts 
in  most  subjects  and  lessons  assigned  for  home  study,  as  all  the  time 
in  school  will  be  devoted  to  recitations,  lectures  and  laboratory  experi- 
ments. The  general  period  work  will  be  required  of  all.  This  con- 
sists of  Palmer  business  writing,  commercial  spelling,  chorus,  rhetoricals 
and  debate.  Special  classes  will  be  given  if  there  is  sufficient  demand 
for  them.  Students  from  the  associated  schools  will  be  admitted  free, 
but  districts  outside  the  association  will  be  charged  a  fee  of  $2.50 
per  month  for  each  pupil  attending.  The  district  pays  for  this,  not 
the  pupil.  The  regular  high  school  faculty  will  have  charge  of  the 
courses,  so  that  high  grade  instruction  is  assured.    Certificates  will  be 


392 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


given  for  work  finished  at  the  end  of  each  year,  and  those  completing 
the  four-year  winter  curriculum  will  be  graduated  with  a  diploma. 
With  evidence  of  satisfactory  experience  on  the  farm,  this  diploma 
will  be  accepted  for  two  years'  advanced  standing  in  the  industrial  cur- 
riculum of  the  high  school.  Farmers  and  their  wives  who  can  not  be 
present  for  the  entire  work  are  especially  invited  to  attend  the  lectures 
on  such  subjects  as  they  are  interested  in. 


First  Division 


Second  Division 


First  Year  — 
English,   5 
Woodwork,   5 
Farm   crops,   5 
Practical   Arith.,    5 
Plain   cooking,    10 
Poultry,    5 
Writing    and    spell 

ing,  S 


Second  Year  — 

English,   s 

Woodwork,    5 

Animal     husban- 
dry,   5 

Farm  accounts,  5 

Home   accounts,   5 

Domestic  science,   10     Drainage,    5 

Commercial    geog-         Sewing,    10 
raphy,   5  Bookkeeping,     5 

Business    law,    5 


Third    Year  — 

English,   s 

Iron  work,  5 

Soils  and   fertiliza- 
tion, 5 

Farm  manage- 
ment, s 


Fourth   Year  — 

English,    s 

Cement    and    build- 
ings,   5 

Corn    culture,    5 

Farm    mechanics,    5 

Domestic    art,    10 

Political    econ- 
omy,   5 

Civics,    5 


Business  writing,  spelling,  rhetoricals  and  debate  are  required  at 
the  general  period  throughout  the  course. 

Notes  on  the  Course 

"  It  will  be  noticed  the  curriculum  is  divided  into  two  divisions  for 
economy  in  handling  the  classes.  The  plan  is  to  alternate  the  work  of 
the  first  and  second  years,  as  well  as  that  of  the  third  and  fourth 
years,  offering  half  of  the  subjects  of  a  division  one  year  and  the  other 
half  the  next.  The  numerals  indicate  the  equivalent  of  single  periods 
per  week.  Each  student  working  for  credit  should  elect  twenty  units 
per  week,  as  this  is  the  basis  required  for  graduation.  The  first  two 
years  of  English  are  required  of  all  students.  The  rest  of  the  work  is 
elective  except  the  general  period." 

5.  The  Township  High  School. —  This  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
developments  of  secondary  education  in  this  country. 

It  is  illustrated  by  the  Township  High  School  of  Illinois.  It  sup- 
plies elaborate  curricula  equal  to  the  best  of  those  that  have  been  given 
in  the  early  pages  of  this  appendix.  The  program  of  the  one  at  hand 
shows  eleven  curricula,  one  commercial,  two  in  literature  and  arts,  one 
leading  to  engineering,  one  to  agriculture,  one  to  work  in  general 
science,  one  to  medicine,  veterinary  surgery  and  dentistry,  one  to  lit- 
erary professions,  and  one  to  teaching,  also  one  manual  training  and 
one  domestic  science  curriculum.  Two  of  these  curricula  must  serve 
as  samples  here  :  — 

Literature  and  Arts 
(15%   units   required   for  graduation) 
Second   Year. 

Required : 
English. 

Greek  and  Roman  History. 
Geometry. 


First  Year. 

Required : 
English. 
Physiography. 
Algebra. 


Latin. 


Latin. 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA 


393 


Third  Year. 


Required : 

English. 

Modern  Language. 

Physics. 
Elective : 

Latin. 

Medieval  and  Modern  History 
or  English  History. 

Algebra  III  and  Solid  Geom- 


etry or  Algebra  III  and 
Trigonometry. 

Commercial  Geography. 

Industrial  History  and  Eco- 
nomics. 

Sewing. 

Cooking. 

Manual  Training. 

Botany  or  Zoology. 


Fourth  Year. 


One  Required: 

English    Literature   or    Public 
Speaking  or   College   Rhet- 
oric. 
Elective : 

Latin. 

Modern  Language. 

Medieval  and  Modern  History. 

English   History. 

American  History. 

Algebra  III  and  Solid  Geom- 
etry or  Algebra  III  and 
Trigonometry  or  Trigonom- 
etry and  Surveying. 

Botany. 


Zoology. 

Chemistry. 

Industrial  History  and  Eco- 
nomics. 

Civics  and  Commercial  Law. 

Sewing. 

Cooking. 

Manual  Training. 

Advanced  Physics. 

Astronomy. 

Roman  Life. 

American   Literature. 

One  unit  of  music  may  be  al- 
lowed. 


Required : 

English. 

Industrial  Science. 
Manual  Training. 


Required : 
English. 
Physics. 
Manual  Training. 


Manual  Training 
First  Year. 

Elective : 

General  Mathematics. 
Algebra. 

Second  Year. 

Elective : 

Foreign  Language. 

Greek  and  Roman  History. 

Medieval  and  Modern  History. 

Geometry.* 

General  Mathematics. 

Third  Year. 


Required: 

English. 

Manual  Training. 

Chemistry. 
Elective : 

Industrial    History    and    Eco- 
nomics. 

Medieval  and  Modern  History. 

*  If  Algebra  is  selected,  geometry 
sequence  allowed. 


English  History. 
Language. 

Algebra  III  and  Solid  Geom- 
etry. 
Arts  and  Crafts. 
Machine  Designing. 
Architectural  Designing. 

is   the  first   mathematical 


394  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Fourth  Year. 

n<iu'recV  ^  American  Literature. 

Manual  Training.  Civics  and  Commercial  Law. 

E1£.ctiye:  Algebra  III  and  Solid  Geome- 
Lnghsh.  try. 

Electrical  Construction.  Trigonometry  and  Surveying. 

Foreign  Language.  Arts  and  Crafts. 

Public  Speaking.  Machine  Designing. 

English  History.  Architectural  Designing. 
American  History. 

Quotations  from  Stanley  Brown,  Principal  of  the  Joliet  Township 
High  School  will  be  of  interest14:  — 

"The  most  distinctive  feature  (of  the  Township  High  School)  is  that 
the  entire  power  to  establish  or  disestablish,  to  bond,  to  build,  to  create 
the  board,  etc.,  etc.,  is  lodged  in  the  local  community.  So  far  as  my 
information  goes  there  is  no  other  type  of  public  educational  institu- 
tion that  receives  absolutely  no  financial  support  from  the  state,  and  in 
consequence  the  township  high  school  of  Illinois  is  the  most  purely 
democratic  institution  known  to  the  writer." 

"To  most  people  unfamiliar  with  the  township  high  school  law  of 
Illinois,  the  primary  conception  of  such  a  school  locates  it  in  the  heart 
of  a  rural  community  and  thinks  of  it  as  applying  only  to  rural  com- 
munities, but  its  main  application  in  Illinois  has  been  found  of  greatest 
value  in  villages  and  towns  whose  location  made  it  possible  for  them 
to  act  as  the  center  of  community  life,  even  though  their  population  was 
but  a  few  hundred  or  a  few  thousand  people." 

"  There  is  no  limit  in  either  direction  to  the  amount  or  character  of 
work  which  may  be  done  in  a  township  high  school,  and  so  one  may 
find  on  investigation  that  the  courses  of  study  vary  from  two  years 
to  six  years  and  include  both  high  school,  normal  school  and  college 
work.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  at  present,  if  a  community  so  elects, 
to  prevent  the  successful  completion  of  one  or  two  years  of  work  or- 
dinarily offered  by  the  college  or  the  normal  school.  Such  advanced 
courses  are  now  being  given  by  some  of  the  township  high  schools  in 
Illinois  and  that  with  such  success  as  to  secure  without  examination  or 
condition  the  same  credit  in  college  and  university  which  similar  courses 
would  receive  if  the  student  had  taken  them  in  the  college  or  uni- 
versity instead  of  the  high  school." 

"  The  township  high  school  is  a  system  by  itself  and  is,  in  consequence, 
free  from  many  of  the  disturbing  factors  incident  to  municipal  control 
of  schools.  Neither  the  mayor  of  the  city,  the  city  council,  the  ward 
politician,  nor  any  official  of  the  municipality  may  interfere  with  the 
development  of  the  township  high  school." 

"  The  records  of  the  township  high  schools  in  Illinois  show  that  both 
the  tenure  of  office  of  the  superintendent  or  principal  of  the  school 
and  that  of  the  board  of  education  controlling  it  are  much  longer  than 

"Extracts  from  his  "Township  High  Schools  of  Illinois." 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA  395 

the  tenure  of  office  of  either  city  superintendent  or  principal  of  city 
high  school  or  city  boards  of  education." 

"  It  is  fairly  certain  that  no  other  type  of  high  school  in  any  state  of 
the  union  in  either  city  or  town  has  at  its  command  sufficient  funds  to 
pay  the  superintendent,  principal  and  teachers  as  well  as  do  the  best 
township  high  schools  of  Illinois." 

"  It  is  not  only  possible  but  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  many  of  the 
township  high  schools  are  equipped  with  apparatus,  libraries,  museums, 
etc.,  etc.,  very  much  better  than  most  of  the  small  colleges  and  as  well 
as  some  of  the  universities.  When  a  school  is  able  to  expend  eighteen 
thousand  dollars  for  apparatus,  etc.,  to  equip  laboratories,  there  need 
be  no  hesitation  in  arranging  advanced  courses  in  science." 

"  The  extent,  amount  and  character  of  work  done  by  the  best  town- 
ship high  schools  of  Illinois  give  them  a  higher  classification  in  the 
educational  system  than  belongs  to  any  other  type  of  high  school 
in  any  state.  The  work  accomplished  by  technical  institutions,  pri- 
vately endowed  and  extending  over  six  years  beyond  the  elementary 
school  course  is  not  very  different  from  that  of  the  best  township  high 
schools  in  Illinois.  In  so  far  as  the  first  two  years'  work  ordinarily 
offered  by  the  small  college  or  the  university  is  done  by  the  township 
high  school,  in  such  particular  it  belongs  to  the  collegiate  classifica- 
tion." 

"  The  organization  of  the  township  high  school  has  been  a  great  boon 
to  the  elementary  school,  because  the  taxes  which  supported  both  sys- 
tems before  the  enactment  of  the  township  law  are  now  used  exclusively 
for  the  support  of  the  elementary  school.  The  township  school  de- 
pends on  the  township  as  a  unit  with  all  the  corporate  interests  located 
therein  to  furnish  the  funds  for  its  support,  and  in  no  case  has  the 
taxing  limit   for  its   support  been   reached." 

"  The  state  gives  no  support  and  has  absolutely  no  authority  in  the 
management  of  this  school." 

"  There  are  already  eighty  of  these  Township  High  Schools  in  Illinois, 
and  the  number  is  growing." 

"The  Joliet  Township  High  School,  Joliet,  Illinois,  enrolls  eighteen 
hundred  students  and  includes  day,  afternoon,  evening,  and  vacation 
schools.  Eighty-five  per  cent,  of  all  who  complete  the  eighth  grade  in 
the  city  enter  the  high  school ;  sixty  per  cent,  of  those  who  enter  the  high 
school  graduate  from  a  four-year  curriculum ;  fifty  per  cent,  of  all  who 
graduate  enter  some  higher  institution  of  learning.  This  institution, 
supported  entirely  by  local  taxation  and  managed  entirely  through  local 
control,  includes  four  years  of  high  school  work  beyond  the  eighth 
grade,  one  year  of  State  Normal  School  work  with  practice  teaching 
for  graduates  of  the  school,  and  two  years  of  college  work  for  grad- 
uates of  the  school." 

"  The  institution  is  now  ranked  by  the  State  University  of  Illinois 
as  a  Junior  College,  and  its  graduates  recommended  receive  the  same 
treatment  as  students  coming  from  a  college  or  university." 

The  LaSalle-Peru  Township  High  School  already  has  a  group  of  five 


396  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

buildings.  Its  Principal,  Thomas  J.  McCormack,  has  this  to  say  as 
to  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  such  schools :  — 

"  They  are  much  misunderstood,  especially  by  the  people  in  the 
East.  Our  state  law  enables  the  people  of  any  congressional  township 
(six  miles  by  six  miles  square)  to  establish  a  township  high  school 
in  addition  to  and  above  the  regular  school  systems  already  established. 
It  is  mainly  a  device  for  doubling  the  taxation  powers  of  our  school 
systems.  For  example,  our  township  high  school  board  can  tax  the 
property  of  our  entire  township  as  much  as  the  boards  of  the  three 
individual  cities  composing  the  township  can  tax  the  said  property. 
If  we  had  no  township  high  school  in  our  little  tri-cities,  each  city 
would  be  compelled  to  support  a  high  school  with  the  same  funds  with 
which  it  is  now  supporting  its  grade  schools;  and  when  you  reflect 
that  the  grade  schools  have  barely  enough  money  to  operate  themselves 
decently  by  modern  methods,  you  will  understand  the  main  advantage 
of  the  township  High  School.  It  is  to  be  remembered  furthermore 
that  township  high  schools  are  not  limited  to  the  country,  but  in  fact 
flourish  in  their  greatest  strength  in  the  medium  sized  cities.  The 
regular  high  school  of  Joliet,  for  instance,  a  city  of  fifty  or  sixty 
thousand,  is  a  township  high  school." 

"  We  draw  from  as  large  a  territory  as  interurban  lines  of  trans- 
portation reach  and  until  we  touch  the  zone  of  another  high  school 
district.  For  example,  we  have  good  connections  at  La  Salle  East  and 
West,  and  consequently  we  draw  from  territory  within  fifteen  miles 
on  each  side  of  us.  Our  attendance  north  and  south  is  limited  by 
the  fact  that  there  are  no  interurban  connections,  but  only  steam 
railway  connections.  Again  twenty  miles  east  of  us  at  Ottawa  is  a 
large  township  high  school,  and  five  and  twenty  miles  respectively  west 
of  us  are  two  large  township  high  school." 

6.    State  schools  — 

Most  of  the  foregoing  curricula  are  local  applications  of  the  high 
school  idea.  That  they  represent  the  general  trend  is  indicated  by 
the  fact  that  states  prescribe  the  general  type  which  may  be  deduced 
from  these  local  curricula  for  all  high  schools  within  their  borders. 

(a)  A  Middle  West  State. 


State  Regulations 

"  Every  four-year  curriculum  shall  contain  at  least  fourteen  year 
units  of  work.  Unless  for  satisfactory  special  reasons  exceptions  are 
allowed,  the  following  units  of  work  should  be  found  in  every  curricu- 
lum (a  unit  of  work  to  mean  one  year's  work  of  one  period  a  day,  or 
180  or  more  recitations).  Recitation  periods  should  be  not  less  than 
35  minutes  in  length  and  a  longer  period  is  desirable. 

"  I.     Mathematics   2  units. 

"  II.     English  :  — 

(Includes    literature,    literary    readings,    composition, 
grammar  and  rhetoric)  2  units. 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA 


397 


"  III.     Science  :  — 

(a)  Physics  or  chemistry,  *elementary  science. 

(b)  Any  one  of  the  following  sciences,  or  a  combina- 

tion  of  not  more  than  two  of  them, —  botany, 
zoology,  physiology,  physical  geography,  I  unit    2  units. 
"IV.    History:  — 

(a)  United   States   history,   including  history   of  the 

constitution,  I  unit. 

(b)  Ancient    history,    or    ancient    and    medieval,    or 

medieval  and  modern  and  English  history,  i  unit    2  units. 
"  V.     In  general  curricula  offering  less  than   four  years  of 
work  in  a  foreign  language,  there  must  be  at  least 
three  units  of  work  in  English,  and  two  and  one-half 
units  in  history." 

"  Maximum  and  Minimum  Time  Limits 

"  1.  No  subject,  as  a  general  rule,  should  be  offered  for  a  less  time 
than  one-half  year.  Algebra  and  geometry  should  never  be  re- 
quired for  a  period  to  exceed  one  year  each. 

"  2.  Not  less  than  two  years  of  any  foreign  language  should  be  offered. 

"  3.  The  maximum  time  for  history  shall  be  three  years,  or  four  years 
including  civics  and  economics.  Where  instruction  in  American 
history  in  the  elementary  schools  is  strong,  it  is  advisable  to 
have  United  States  history  follow  rather  than  precede  Euro- 
pean history. 

"  4.  Civics  and  economics  not  to  exceed  one-half  year  each. 

"5.  Teachers  in  all  branches  of  study  will  be  held  responsible  for  re- 
sults in  English,  and  all  teachers  of  composition  and  literature 
are  urged  to  make  an  especial  effort  to  improve  the  administra- 
tion of  this  work." 

"  The  following  general  type  curriculum  including  manual  training 
and  domestic  science  presents  a  specific  application  of  the  preceding 
principles  and  is  given  as  a  suggestive  basis  for  the  formation  of  new 
curricula.  With  slight  variation  it  has  been  very  widely  adopted  in 
the  state.  While  it  is  desirable  that  there  shall  be  a  large  degree  of 
uniformity  in  the  high  school  curricula  of  the  state  yet  reasonable  va- 
riation will  be  approved  and  it  is  neither  intended  to  arbitrarily  fix  the 
place  of  the  different  subjects  nor  to  discourage  the  adaptation  of  high 
school  work  to  manifest  local  needs.  Special  curricula  are  made  by 
combining  special  subjects  with  the  type  curriculum." 


First  Year 

First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Required  Units 
English.  English. 

Algebra.  Algebra. 

*  Elementary   science   should   mainly   consist   of  elementary   physics 
and  chemistry. 


398  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

First  Semester  Second  Semester 

Elect  Tivo  Units 
Elementary  Science.  Elementary  Science. 

Latin.  Latin. 

Spelling,  Penmanship,  etc.  Botany. 

Manual  Training  or  Domestic  Sci-      Manual  Training  or  Domestic  Sci- 
ence, ence. 

Composition,  Business  Forms,  etc. 

Second  Year 

Required  Units 

Ancient  History.  Ancient  History. 

English.  English. 

Elect  Two  Units 

Arithmetic.  Physiology. 

Botany.  Latin. 

Latin.  Bookkeeping. 

Manual  Training  or  Domestic  Manual  Training  or  Domestic 

Science.  Science. 

Zoology.  Geography. 

Third  Year 

Required  Units 
Geometry.  Geometry. 

Medieval  History.  English  History. 

Elect  Two  Units 

English.  English. 

German.  German. 

Latin.  Latin. 

Citizenship.  Grammar. 

Bookkeeping.  Economics. 

Physical  Geography.  Chemistry. 
Chemistry. 

(b)  A  State  in  the  Far  West. 

First  Class  (Four- Year)  High  School 

Shall  have  a  curriculum  requiring  fifteen  units: 
Seven  specified  units : 
Three  units  English. 
Two  units  mathematics. 
One  unit  social  science,  including  history. 
One  unit  natural  science. 
Two  additional  academic  units : 

One  or  both  of  these  units  shall  be  advanced  work  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  a  second  major  of  three  units. 
Six  elective  units : 
Two  units  foreign  language.     Note :     Students  desiring  to  make 
a  major  in  foreign  language  will  apply  one  of  the  additional 
academic  units  to  foreign  language. 


STUDIES  AND  CURRICULA 


399 


Four  elective  units  to  be  used  for  whatever  work  best  meets 
the  needs  of  the  individual. 

7.  Small  towns  and  villages. —  Even  small  towns  and  villages,  with 
their  limited  means,  are  following  the  same  trends.  Naturally  the  same 
wealth  of  curricula  and  options  cannot  be  supplied,  but  the  same  spirit 
is  there. 

(a)  A  New  England  town  of  less  than  five  hundred  families,  with 
no  state  aid  such  as  many  such  towns  receive,  because  its  valuation  was 
higher  than  that  established  for  drawing  such  aid. 


A  High  School  of  4  Teachers  and  64  Pupils  Curriculum 


General 
Bnglish  1 
Algebra 
German        "1 
Phys.  Ceog.  > 
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or  German 


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(half  year) 
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Adv.  Alg. 
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3 


Specials  (Elective) 

Public  Speaking   Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Manual  Training   Fresh.,  Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Mechanical  Drawing  Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Beginning  Design  or  Sketching  Fresh.,  Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Sewing  Fresh. 


400 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


College  Preparatory 


Classical 


First 

English 
Latin 
Algebra 
Ancient  Hist. 


Year 


Scientific 
First    Year 


English 
German 
Algebra 
Ancient  Hist. 


Second  Year 


English 

Latin 

German 

Plane  Geometry 


Third  Year 

English 

Latin 

German 

Algebra   (half  year) 

Physics  or  Eng.  Hist. 

Fourth  Year 
English 
Latin 

Advanced  Algebra  (half  year) 
Chemistry 
American  History 


Second  Year 

English 

German 

Plane  Geometry 

Biology 

Third  Year 
English 
German 

Algebra  and  Solid  Geometry 
Physics  or  Eng.  Hist. 


Fourth  Year 

English 

Trig,  and  Adv.  Alg. 

Chemistry 

American  History 


Specials  (Elective) 

Public  Speaking   Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Manual  Training    Fresh.,  Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Mechanical  Drawing   Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Beginning  Design  or  Sketching Fresh.,  Soph.,  Jr.,  and  Sr. 

Sewing   Fresh. 


(b)  A  "Mining  Camp"  High  School  offers  three  curricula,— col- 
lege  preparatory,   commercial,    and    scientific,   with    elective   privileges. 

(c)  A  High  School  in  a  totun  that  has  risen  from  a  Western  desert 
has  three  business  curricula,  two  and  three  years  in  length,  besides 
evening  courses,  and  two  four-year  curricula,  Latin  scientific  and 
Scientific,  with  elective  privileges. 

(d)  A  New  England  High  School  in  a  village  of  6000,  serving  also 
as  high  school  center  for  near-by  rural  townships.  (Through  a  pro- 
vision of  school  law  such  townships  may  pay  the  expenses  of  sec- 
ondary pupils  at  neighboring  high  schools,  instead  of  maintaining 
such  schools  themselves, —  not  an  entirely  satisfactory  arrangement 
from  several  view-points,  but  a  workable  one.)  This  school  offers 
college  preparatory,  scientific  preparatory,  general,  commercial,  do- 
mestic arts,  and  mechanic  arts  curricula,  with  elective  privileges. 


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THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


A  Pacific  Coast  School  (Concluded). 

General  Notes:  Oral  Expression  and  Gymnasium  require  two  hours 
per  week.  All  other  subjects  have  daily  recitations  and  receive  full 
credit.  Subjects  requiring  more  than  one  period  per  day  are  followed 
by  numbers  in  parentheses.  One  subject  under  each  numeral  must  be 
taken,  except  in  college  preparatory  curriculum  (2),  in  which  four  sub- 
jects are  required  each  year. 

Collegiate  Work:     13th  and  14th  Year  Curricula. 


English : 

Composition  —  Narration,  De- 
scription,  Exposition 
Chronological    Study   of  Eng- 
lish Literature  by  Types 

Mathematics : 

Solid   Geometry 

Trigonometry 

College   Algebra 

Calculus,  differential,  integral 

Analytical  Geometry 

German : 

Elementary  German 

Advanced 

Literature 

French : 

Elementary 

Advanced 

Literature 


History : 

History   of  the   U.    S.    Terri- 
torial Growth  * 
History  of  the  Last  Century 

Social  Sciences : 

Introduction    to     Social     Sci- 
ence* 

Psychology,  elementary 
Logic,  deductive 
Advanced    Economics  * 
Parliamentary  Government  in 
Europe  and  America 

Natural  Sciences: 

Physics    of   the   Home.     Bac- 
teriology of  the  Home 
General  Botany 
Chemistry: 

Qualitative  Analysis 
Quantitative   Analysis 


*Given     alternate 
1915-1916. 


years     not     in 


_  Cb)  A  Second  High  School  in  the  same  city  offers  seventeen  cur- 
ricula,—  commerce,  home  economics,  electrical  engineering,  mining  en- 
gineering, civil  engineering,  art,  mechanical  draughting,  architecture, 
music,  industrial,  dressmaking  and  millinery,  chemistry,  mechanical 
engineering,  general  elective,  college  preparatory  (two  different  cur- 
ricula), journalism. 

These  schools  give  a  vivid  idea  of  the  splendid  service  rendered  by 
great  cosmopolitan  high  schools.  At  the  same  time,  with  eight  other 
high  schools  in  the  same  city  offering  various  curricula  ranging  in 
number  from  three  to  eleven,  besides  several  Junior  High  Schools 
providing  six  curricula,  they  bring  into  sharp  relief  the  result  of  the 
nineteenth  century  tendency  to  scatter  high  schools  and  high  school  ad- 
ministration, with  the  consequent  financial  loss  and  loss  in  mutual 
cooperation,  appreciation  and  civic  unity.  In  contrast  with  this  the 
twentieth  century  is  to  tend  toward  greater  concentration  and  higher 
educational  efficiency. 


XXIV 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY, —  PRINCIPLES 

AND  METHOD 

Study-content, —  more  important  than  the  curriculum. — 
But  study-content  is  more  important  than  the  formal  curricu- 
lum. It  is  this  that  makes  the  real  curriculum.  The  twentieth 
century  high  school  is  to  adapt  the  content  of  studies  more  care- 
fully to  the  qualities  of  the  adolescent,  both  physical  and  psy- 
chical. This  is  not  an  abstract  matter  to  be  settled  by  the  ap- 
parent demands  of  the  studies  themselves.  Technical  and  pro- 
fessional education  is  not  aided  by  assigning  to  the  adolescent  a 
kind  of  instruction  and  technique  for  which  he  is  not  fitted,  or 
for  which  he  has,  at  that  stage,  a  natural  repugnance.  There 
is  adolescent  material  in  every  subject,  and  there  is  infinite  scope 
for  the  selection  of  material  of  this  type.  The  curriculum  itself 
is  meaningless  form.  Choice  of  content  and  manner  of  presen- 
tation give  it  vitality  and  validity.  It  is  here  that  we  touch  the 
individual.  In  this  sense  only  is  the  curriculum  a  part  of  school 
environment.  In  this  sense  it  becomes  the  most  important  part 
of  that  environment.  It  is  through  this  selective  process  that 
the  school  promotes  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  health, 
and  brings  to  bear  upon  the  pupil  forms  and  forces  that  relate 
themselves  readily  to  adolescent  characteristics.  It  is  through 
this  that  the  high  school  trues  all  its  educational  material  and 
processes  to  its  opportunities  and  just  ends,  giving  clear  vision, 
inspiring  high  endeavor,  and  inculcating  ideas  of  public  service. 

Some  principles  to  be  used  in  determining  study-content. — 
The  great  purpose  of  secondary  education  is  to  give  the 
adolescent  an  adolescent's  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the 
choicest  treasures  in  the  experience  of  the  race,  and  to  initiate 
him  into  citizenship.  This  involves  an  intelligent  grasp  of  his 
special  vocation,  when  the  secondary  school  is  his  "  finishing 

409 


410  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

school."  This  is  true  historically,  and  it  accords  with  the  psy- 
chology and  pedagogy  of  the  period.  Applied  to  present-day 
education  it  means  that  the  secondary  period  is  a  time  for  in- 
ducting into  great  subjects,  for  developing  great  interests,  for 
settling  the  guiding  habits  of  life,  intellectual,  physical,  social, 
and  religious. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  instruction  the  main  point  is  to 
lead  a  pupil  to  love  a  subject.  We  must  strike  directly  at  his 
interests  and  build  systematically  from  this  point.  Dominant 
interests  in  the  pupil  and  point  of  attack  in  the  subject  must 
coincide.  Details  that  the  ten-year-old  relishes  or  at  least  mas- 
ters with  a  good  grace,  and  the  finesse  and  technique  that  ap- 
peal to  the  older  student  find  no  marked  favor  with  the  adoles- 
cent. The  larger  ideas,  whose  meaning  and  suggestiveness  are 
more  evident,  are  for  him.  We  sometimes  so  pervert  order 
that  we  repel  from  a  subject  when  we  might  attract. 

Language  study  as  an  example. —  To  be  more  specific,  form- 
work  and  drill  in  Latin  should  come  in  the  pre-pubertal  period. 
The  kind  of  work  often  provided  for  the  adolescent, —  work  in 
which  a  boy  of  nine  or  ten  might  be  content  and  even  enthusias- 
tic,—  repels  the  high  school  student,  and  doubtless  explains  in  a 
measure  the  partial  dissolution  of  Latin  classes  as  they  finish 
the  first  term's  work.1  Latin  is  a  very  useful  study,  if  con- 
ducted so  as  to  realize  its  utility.  In  the  coming  high  school 
content  and  method  will  be  such  as  to  adequately  reward  the 
pupils  who  elect  it.  In  language  study  generally,  whether  we 
are  concerned  with  English  or  with  some  foreign  language,  the 
adolescent  should  be  occupied,  on  the  grammatical  side,  with 
some  of  the  larger  ideas  of  grammar  that  afford  stimulating  and 
inspiring  application  of  intellectual  muscle.  Such  application 
may  be  made,  particularly  in  the  direction  of  self-expression, 
or  composition,  which  should  have  a  splendid  growth  at  this  age 
if  rightly  managed.  On  the  other  hand,  he  should  be  led  to 
love  literature  and  get  something  of  its  spirit.  Clouston  says 
that  now  for  the  first  time  comes  any  real  appreciation  of  litera- 
ture. The  study  of  literature  in  the  high  school,  therefore, 
should  take  hold  of  this  rising  adolescent  quality.     The  in- 

^ee  articles  by  G.  S.  Hall  and  E.  B.  Bryan  in  Ped.  Sem.,  Vols 
7  and  9. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     411 

tensive  study  of  pieces,  as  such,  is  a  mistake  psychologically  and 
linguistically.2 

Science  as  an  example. —  Again  the  mastery  of  the  common 
facts  of  science,  as  facts,  comes  in  the  elementary  school.  A 
new  order  of  objective  work  to  meet  the  new  power  of  observa- 
tion that  is  dawning,  and  especially  the  study  of  processes,  of 
meanings,  and  of  relations,  the  stimulation  of  great  laws,  and 
the  inspiration  of  the  lives  of  great  scientists  fit  the  nature  of 
the  adolescent  and  will  mark  the  twentieth  century  study  of  ele- 
mentary science  in  the  high  school.3  As  in  literature,  we  too 
often  expect  the  pupil  to  occupy  himself  with  fine  details,  dry 
and  abstract  discussions  of  what  are  supposed  to  be  pre- 
liminaries of  the  subject,  and  patient  investigation. 

In  suggesting  adolescent  material  in  these  subjects  hints  have 
been  given  as  to  the  perversion  of  order  and  the  lack  of  peda- 
gogical judgment  that  have  been  too  common  in  laying  out 
these  high  school  courses.  The  same  conditions  may  be  found 
in  other  subjects.  It  is  not  possible  to  follow  the  logical  order 
as  laid  down  in  a  systematic  treatise  on  a  subject.  Another 
kind  of  logic  rules.  The  elements  of  a  subject  found  in  a 
treatise,  or  in  a  reduced  copy  of  a  treatise, —  the  logically  ar- 
ranged text-book, —  do  not,  at  least  as  ordinarily  conceived,  rep- 
resent adolescent  educational  material.  Such  material  must  be 
culled  and  arranged  in  an  order  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the 
pupil.  Material  not  found  in  the  book  must  be  used  to  sup- 
plement the  book.  Introductory  lessons  must  be  revised  and 
improved  and  related  to  the  secondary  period. 

New  text-books. —  The  high  school  is  to  have  new  text- 
books made  on  a  different  plan.  But,  more  important  than  this, 
the  text-book  is  to  occupy  its  legitimate  place  and  serve  merely 
as  a  secondary  agency.     The  pupil's  first  work  in  a  subject  or 

2  This,  however,  does  not  mean  that  some  pieces  may  not  be  read 
with  considerable  reference  to  detail  (of  a  sort  applicable  to  the  age), 
so  that  the  pupil  may  get  a  suggestive  plan  for  reading,  and  get  it  as 
concretely  as  possible.  Most  of  the  intensive  reading,  however,  as 
now  conducted,  is  not  for  this  purpose.  The  meaning  of  it  all  is  this, 
that  the  main  aim  should  be  adolescent  appreciation  of  literature,  not 
finesse. 

3  See  G.  S.  Hall  in  Ped.  Sem.  Note  here  the  reorganization  of  science 
in  the  Mass.  High  Schools,  Rept.  of  Mass.  Board  of  Education,  1912-13, 
pp.  103,  136,  and  the  reorganization  of  high  school  mathematics. 


412  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

J  topic  is  to  be  direct,  rather  than  indirect  through  some  book. 
This  makes  it  possible  for  the  book  to  fulfil  its  larger  function 
as  a  means  of  stimulating  study  and  reference  supplementary  to 
the  direct  work.  Again  a  subject  cannot  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions longitudinally  or  latitudinally,  one  for  the  secondary 
school,  one  for  the  college.  Such  a  relation  of  schools  does  not 
exist,  or  does  not  exist  in  such  a  form.     / 

High  school  period  a  selective  one. — •  The  secondary  period, 
looked  at  from  all  points  of  view,  is  a  peculiarly  selective  one. 
Right  selection  secures  interest.  When  once  the  pupil  is  se- 
curely interested  in  a  subject,  the  abstract  organization  of  parts 
into  a  logical  whole  will  come  in  a  more  natural  way  than  when 
forced  prematurely,  and  will  come  all  the  better  because  of  the 
firm  hold  which  the  subject  has  upon  him.  He  has  a  logical  or- 
der quite  as  good  as  the  other,  and,  what  is  of  more  moment 
here,  much  better  adapted  to  him.  We  have  tried  to  be  logical 
in  the  wrong  way. '  Probably  less  has  been  done  on  this  phase 
of  pedagogy  than  on  any  other.  It  furnishes  a  great  field  for 
investigation  and  study ;  for  the  kind  of  educational  material 
and  the  kind  of  relations  are  matters  of  peculiar  concern  in  an 
adolescent  school.  Administrators  of  the  twentieth  century 
high  school  are  to  occupy  this  field  and  adjust  the  secondary 
school  to  its  duties  and  opportunities  by  a  truer  educational 
selection. 

So  much  has  been  said  as  to  the  study  side  of  the  high  school 
because  it  has  occupied  and  continues  to  occupy  the  forefront 
of  attention  and  has  absorbed  most  of  the  effort  of  the  school. 
It  is  an  instinctive  concession  to  a  deep  seated  prejudice.  In 
reality  the  program  of  studies  will  be  a  minor  part  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  high  school.  The  principles  of  selection  that 
apply  to  it,  however,  apply  also  to  all  the  other  influences  of  the 
school,  social  and  intellectual,  some  of  the  most  important  of 
which  are  to  be  considered  in  the  latter  part  of  this  chapter  and 
in  the  next. 

The  new  high  school  as  a  factor  in  the  revision  of  the 
elementary  program. —  In  this  adjustment  of  the  program  of 
studies  and  of  content  it  will  be  feasible  to  render  a  very  distinct 
and  long-needed  service  to  the  elementary  school.  Its  curricu- 
lum and  curriculum-relations  need  readjustment  quite  as  much 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     413 

as  any  part  of  the  secondary  school.  At  present  our  elementary 
grades  are  literally  lumbered  with  study  material  that  is  not 
merely  extraneous  to  its  just  purposes,  but  is  needed  in  the 
higher  schools.  Much  of  grade  geography,  as  at  present  out- 
lined, belongs  in  the  high  school,  not  merely  because  it  is  a  con- 
fusing element  in  the  grades  and  not  suited  to  the  development 
of  grade  pupils,  but  because  it  is  peculiarly  germane  to  high 
school  aims  and  purposes.  This  is  true  also  of  a  part  of  his- 
tory, truer  of  a  substantial  portion  of  arithmetic,  and  truer  still 
of  grammar.4  The  past  inconsiderate  exploitation  of  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  grades  has  caused  some  of  the  most  serious 
school  problems,  and  has  given  rise  to  some  of  the  most  serious 
criticism  of  the  present  day. 

Some  things  the  high  school  will  take  from  the  elementary 
school. —  The  twentieth  century  high  school  will  have  a  broad 
course  in  geography  in  its  science  group,  not  a  review,  but  a  true 
cultural  and  scientific  course.  This  will  relieve  the  grades  of 
some  of  their  present  over-load.  Different  departments  of  the 
high  school  will  have  a  strong  technical  course  in  arithmetic, 
and  there  will  probably  be  a  good  general  course  in  the  subject. 
This  will  relieve  the  grades  of  much  misplaced  effort  incident 
to  attempting  work  beyond  the  experience  and  thought-power 
of  grade  pupils,  and  will  secure  a  substantial  foundation  for 
the  mathematical  work  of  the  technical  departments  of  the 
high  school  in  place  of  the  necessarily  unreliable  foundation  that 
the  grades  now  furnish,  because  they  find  imposed  on  them  a 
strictly  impossible  task. 

The  high  school  will  also  have  in  the  latter  half  of  its  course 
of  training,  when  it  can  be  made  comprehensible  and  practical, 
a  broad  course  in  English  grammar,  including  all  but  the  sim- 
pler concrete  work.  Here  again  the  grades  will  be  freed  from 
a  monstrous  pedagogical  blunder.     Grammar  became  fixed  in 

4  Particularly  the  more  complex  and  abstract  portions  of  physical, 
economic,  and  industrial  geography,  which  is  now  well  represented  in 
the  grades ;  technical  arithmetic, —  stocks  and  bonds,  technical  problems, 
complex  and  abstract  operations;  in  history  the  more  complicated  mili- 
tary movements,  the  more  abstract  portions  of  constitutional  history, 
much  of  "  administration  "  history,  etc.  It  is  questionable  whether  some 
of  this  is  not  out  of  place  even  in  the  high  school, —  particularly  some 
topics  in  history. 


4i4  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

the  curriculum  in  an  age  when  grammar  was  the  chief  subject. 
It  was  grammar  of  a  different  type,  but  this  fact  was  lost  sight 
of  in  devotion  to  a  name.  It  was  the  central  study  of  the 
early  secondary  school,  as  we  have  seen  in  earlier  chapters,  but 
in  the  shuffle  of  the  centuries  it  has  been  inconsiderately  shifted 
to  the  elementary  school. 

An  emancipated  and  rejuvenated  elementary  school,  in  a 
position  to  do  thoroughly  and  interestedly  work  fully  adapted 
to  it,  will  be  one  of  the  chief  contributions  of  the  twentieth 
century  high  school  to  general  education. 

Method  in  the  twentieth  century  high  school. —  Choice  of 
content  is  essentially  a  part  of  method.  The  other  part  is  or- 
ganization of  content  and  application  of  it  to  the  individual. 
This  part  of  method  is  to  be  more  fully  adapted  to  the  high 
school  pupil's  characteristics 5  and  to  the  times.  It  is  still 
found,  in  the  first  epoch  of  the  twentieth  century,  that  high 
school  methods  in  the  average  school  are  abstract,  formal,  and 
remote,  far  from  bringing  educational  material  and  pupils  into 
vital  educational  relations.6 

Advance  over  the  old  high  school. —  In  the  first  place  the 
more  pedagogical  and  psychological  methods  which  were  usher- 
ing in  a  new  epoch  in  the  study  of  typical  subjects  and  in  the 
development  of  power  and  initiative,  in  the  late  nineteenth  cen- 
tury,7 form  a  strong  basis  for  the  growth  of  method  in  the 
new  century.  These  methods,  by  whatever  name  known, — 
concrete,  objective,  inductive,  laboratory,  scientific,  genetic,  de- 
velopmental,—  are  to  be  more  perfectly  developed,  organized, 
and  applied  and  adjusted  to  high  school  pupils  and  to  the  pur- 
poses of  high  school  education.  The  laboratory  idea  is  to  have 
a  much  wider  application.  Without  going  into  all  details  of 
the  coming  method,  which  would  be  impracticable  here,  we  may 
note  some  of  its  principles  and  supplement  what  was  said  in 
Chapter  XX  as  to  its  spirit  and  purpose. 

5  See  the  author's  summary  of  these  characteristics  in  the  Jour,  of 
Ped.,  17  (1904-5)  :  114  ff.     See  also  Chapter  XXII. 

6  It  is  almost  gratuitous  to  make  estimates  in  such  things,  but  we 
should  perhaps  not  be  far  from  the  truth  to  say  that  fifty  per  cent,  of 
teaching  effort  has  gone  under  the  feet  or  smoothly  over  the  head  of 
the  average  high  school  pupil,  because  matter  and  method  of  instruction 
have  been  poorly  adapted  to  him.     See  page  512,  note  14. 

7  See  Chapter  XX. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     415 

The  teacher  the  chief  element  of  method  —  His  qualifica- 
tions.—  The  teacher  of  the  twentieth  century  high  school,  as 
ever,  will  be  the  chief  element  of  method.  This  teacher  will  be 
distinguished  by  a  knowledge  of  and  sympathy  for  the  adoles- 
cent that  will  be  almost  intuitive,  by  a  broad  mastery  of  sub- 
jects to  be  taught,  by  skill  in  separating  adolescent  material 
from  the  mass,  by  command  of  methods  adapted  to  the  high 
school  pupil,  by  power  to  suggest  ideals,  to  interest,  and  to  in- 
spire. His  method  is  to  begin  with  and  center  in  the  human 
subject,  not  the  culture  subject.  With  such  equipment  and 
such  aims  he  will  be  able  to  do  an  infinite  work  for  the  physical, 
as  well  as  for  the  psychical,  boy  and  girl. 

Physical  and  mental  effects  of  method. —  On  the  physical 
side  it  may  be  said  that  every  failure  in  determining  a  proper 
curriculum,  in  selecting  and  organizing  material,  or  in  bringing 
this  material  into  educational  contact  with  pupils  brings  a 
mal-adjustment  of  adolescent  forces  and  a  nervous  pressure 
which  are  unhygienic  and  threaten  distinct  injury  to  the 
physical  adolescent.  On  the  other  hand  happy  selections, 
guided  by  an  appreciative  knowledge  of  adolescent  life,  en- 
courage spontaneity  and,  so  far,  promote  the  health  of  the 
whole  physical  mechanism.  Stress  and  strain  may  be  abated, 
or  even  abolished,  by  method.  They  may,  on  the  other  hand, 
be  increased  to  the  breaking  point.  Again  the  teacher's  mode 
of  procedure  in  bringing  pupil  and  subject  together  conditions 
intellectual  growth.  If  it  brings  a  distaste  for  the  subject  it 
destroys  its  value  for  mental  growth  ;  but  it  may  quite  as  easily 
do  the  reverse.  The  teacher  of  the  twentieth  century  high 
school  is  to  have  a  keener  sense  of  method.  It  will  be  interest- 
ing to  note  some  of  the  special  lines  of  method-influence  he 
is  to  follow. 

The  psychology  of  method. —  The  adolescent  must  possess  a 
subject  in  his  own  way, —  through  personal  experience,  ob- 
jectively; through  discussing,  relating,  organizing.  The  time 
for  observation  and  objective  work  in  any  subject,8  even  in 
language,  has  not  passed,  though  the  nature  of  such  work 

8  It  is  interesting  to  recall  here  what  was  said  of  out-of-door  study 
when  discussing  the  physical  side  of  the  program,  as  it  shows  how  special 
opportunities  for  objective  work  are  at  hand. 


4i6  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

changes,  as  we  approach  this  period  of  education.  Psycho- 
logically, method  now,  as  before,  brings  into  play,  and  depends 
upon,  the  perceptive  powers,  but  a  new  perceptive  power  has 
come,  a  new  world  of  perception  has  opened.9  The  adoles- 
cent gathers  new  facts  and  new  kinds  of  facts.  This  work  is 
to  be  supplemented  (not  preceded),  and  reinforced  by  the  in- 
spiration of  books,  as  stated  in  another  connection.  Such  in- 
spiration depends  upon,  and  is  conditioned  by,  the  apperceptive 
basis  the  pupil  can  bring  to  the  book.  This  new  observation 
is  accompanied  by  a  more  significant  induction  and  inference 
than  has  been  possible  before.  The  adolescent  is  relating  facts 
as  at  no  previous  age.  Loose  aggregations  no  longer  satisfy. 
He  is  not  preoccupied  with  the  sensory  relations  of  younger 
pupils,  nor  with  such  logical  relations  as  appeal  to  the  older 
student.  He  is  organizing  knowledge  into  the  larger  wholes 
that  best  suit  his  nature. 

From  a  little  different  point  of  view  we  may  say  that  adoles- 
cence is  the  time  for  suggestion  more  than  for  minute  and 
formal  work,  which  is  better  suited  to  other  ages.  Form  gives 
place  to  spirit,  form-work  to  interpretation.  The  new  method 
will  therefore  feel  the  influence  of  this  adolescent  attitude. 
Stated  in  a  larger  way,  method  depends  upon  imagination,  upon 
the  sentient  processes  that  are  maturing,  and  upon  thought- 
processes  in  the  large.  The  pupil  is  under  the  leadership  more 
of  emotional  than  of  intellectual  stimuli.  He  feels  more  than 
he  knows,  and  more  than  he  can  express.  He  is  ripe  for  in- 
spiration, for  getting  hold  of  things  and  letting  things  get 
hold  of  him.  The  twentieth  century  method  will  therefore  be 
of  the  inspirational  sort,  to  develop  great  enthusiasms,  en- 
force ideals,  encourage  constructive  work.  It  will  present 
great  facts  and  relate  them  in  large  ways  to  show  their  mean- 
ing. It  will  thus  enable  the  pupil  to  "  find  himself  "  in  various 
subjects  of  the  program.  Every  subject  has,  somewhere  about 
it,  material  for  great  ideals,  in  the  lives  of  its  votaries,  in  its 
beneficent  contributions  to  civilization,  or  in  some  other  out- 
look which  it  gives  for  focusing  and  directing  interest.  The 
emotional  and  impressionable  adolescent,  once  vitally  touched, 
will  grow  enthusiastic  in  the  subject,  and  at  the  proper  time 

0  Lancaster,  "  Psy.  and  Ped.  of  Adol.,"  in  Ped.  Sem. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     417 

and  place  will  readily  take  up  details  that  would  have  endan- 
gered success,  if  attempted  earlier.  Here  again  we  touch  the 
point  discussed  in  another  place.  Who  can  develop,  control, 
and  direct  the  enthusiasms  of  the  adolescent,  and  can  mobilize 
them,  insures  the  progress  of  ideals  and  their  fulfilment,  and 
controls  the  destiny  of  the  state.10 

Once  more,  it  is  well  suggested  that  the  period  in  question  is 
a  time  for  expression,  that  adolescent  work  must  not  consist 
of  mere  acquisition.  Better,  it  is  time  for  a  new  kind  of  ex- 
pression, for  expression  is  an  absolute  requirement,  in  fact 
the  most  important  requirement,  at  all  periods.  It  gives  point 
and  meaning  to  education.  Without  it  there  is  no  education, 
and  there  is  no  real  acquisition.  It  assumes  special  importance 
here  in  view  of  adolescent  characteristics.  Expression  is  not 
to  be  confined  to  formal  lessons  in  language.  Each  study  has 
its  own  peculiar  expression  that  gives  it  point  and  meaning,  and 
is  as  much  a  part  of  it  as  the  subject  matter  of  the  study  itself. 
Expression  is  double,  language  expression  and  application. 
Each  study  has  its  special  language  expression  that  affords 
valuable  language  training.  The  expression  of  application  is 
very  varied.  Several  types  will  suggest  themselves,  personal 
application,  application  in  connection  with  other  subjects  and 
in  problems  of  one's  profession,  social  application.  The  lat- 
ter is  the  most  significant.  It  will  be  considered  in  connection 
with  a  discussion  of  school  administration  in  the  next  chapter. 

Old  type  of  examinations  to  be  discarded. —  The  twentieth 
century  high  school  will  not  be  an  examination-less  school. 
It  will  not,  however,  be  characterized  by  traditional  examina- 
tions.11 Rather  it  will  be  a  school  of  exploration,11  discovery, 
development.  Correlatively  it  will  be  a  school  that  works,  not 
by  mass,  but  by  individuals,  exploring  the  individual's  power 
and  inspiring  him  to  an  endeavor  equal  to  his  best.     It  will  ex- 

10  See  Burnham,  in  School  Review. 

11  From  examino,  which  means  first,  to  swarm,  second,  to  weigh.  The 
idea  of  examination  had  its  rise  in  this  second  and  less  natural  mean- 
ing that  had  to  do  with  mere  grossness,  bulk.  It  has  curiously  re- 
curred, in  our  use  of  it,  to  its  primary  meaning,  because  it  is  so  often 
merely  an  instrument  of  mass  work. 

Explore,  from  exploro,  which  had  the  simple  meaning  that  we  or- 
dinarily attach  to  the  English  word. 


418  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

plore  his  power  to  follow  up  a  subject  suited  to  his  years  with 
continuity  and  with  effective  results,  his  power  to  think  and  re- 
late within  adolescent  limits,  his  power  to  express  and  to  do, 
in  order  to  really  master  fundamental  facts,  and,  as  a  sum  of  all, 
his  power  to  command  himself.  Examinations,  if  we  are  still 
to  use  the  word,  are  to  be  a  real  educational  agency  instead  of 
a  pump. 

A  teacher  to  every  20-25  pupils. —  But  there  is  a  method- 
policy  or  principle  that  is  more  basal  than  anything  thus  far 
considered,  because  it  provides  for  a  more  intimate  educational 
contact  between  teacher  and  pupil.  However  good  may  be  the 
other  elements  of  method  they  are  conditioned  by  the  size  of 
classes.  High  schools  have  grown  in  patronage  beyond  the 
capacity  of  school  buildings  and  beyond  the  compass  of  the 
teaching  force.  The  twentieth  century  high  school  will  show, 
as  one  of  its  distinguishing  characteristics,  an  improved  ratio 
between  the  number  of  teachers  and  the  number  of  pupils. 

Effect  on  method. —  In  place  of  the  present  impracticable 
condition  under  which  a  teacher  may  have  from  thirty  to  forty 
pupils,  or  even  more,  which  means  long-range,  and  hence  light, 
training,  the  new  organization  of  the  high  school  must  provide 
for  classes  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  pupils.12  Such  an 
increase  in  facilities  will  give  a  new  meaning  and  scope  to 
method,  and  will  increase  the  development  of  adolescent  power 
many  fold. 

More  individuality  in  method. —  Following  the  genius  of  the 
secondary  school  along  the  lines  that  have  been  suggested  we 
see  that  the  general  trend  of  method  is  to  be  toward  greater  in- 
dividuality, first  because  of  the  differentiation  of  curricula  and 
the  opportunity  to  select  work  to  meet  individual  purposes ; 
second,  because  the  teacher,  having  smaller  classes,  can  come 
into  closer  association  with  individuals. 

The  general  trend  of  method. —  Subordinate  to  this  we  see 
that  the  tendency  is  to  be  toward  a  new  type  of  objective  work 

12  William  E.  Chancellor  says  we  need  about  one  teacher  to  every 
sixteen  pupils.  The  vital  point,  however,  is  the  size  of  the  class.  The 
ratio  of  one  to  sixteen  may  or  may  not  result  in  a  proper  adjustment 
of  class  relations.  This  is  a  matter  of  organization  and  administration. 
But  a  proper  ratio  between  number  of  pupils  and  number  of  teachers 
is  a  fundamental  condition  for  securing  classes  of  proper  size. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     419 

applicable  to  the  adolescent;  that  work  is  to  be  initiatory, 
taking  things  in  the  large ;  that  it  is  to  be  inspirational,  build- 
ing ideals  and  putting  them  into  motion ;  that  it  is  to  be  moral 
and  may  easily  guide  the  pupil  into  great  habits ;  that,  whether 
we  will  or  no,  it  is  to  be  religious  and  may,  without  violating 
any  religious  code,  give  the  pupil  a  religious  attitude  that  will 
lead  him  to  settle  his  personal  religion  in  his  own  religious 
group  in  a  way  that  will  fulfil  high  aims,  to  the  great  advantage 
of  himself  and  society. 

The  adolescent's  school  work  will  not  have  the  organization 
and  system,  the  knowledge  of  fine  details,  and  the  deeper  in- 
sight into  the  meaning  of  things  that  come  after  wider  experi- 
ence, but  it  will  have  organization  just  the  same,  an  organiza- 
tion specially  suited  to  it. 

Central  idea  in  method  —  Inspiration. —  If  we  should  select 
one  word  to  characterize  the  method  for  adolescence,  especially 
early  adolescence,  it  would  be  the  word  inspirational.  The  late 
elementary  school  gives  the  drill  which  fixes  forms  and  pro- 
vides "  tools."  The  high  school  must  inspire.  The  adolescent 
lends  himself  spontaneously  to  such  influence.  The  teacher 
who  can  meet  him  with  inspirational  methods  can  send  him  to 
almost  any  worthy  achievement. 

Primitive  secondary  education  contrasted  with  that  of 
later  centuries. —  Education  of  early  centuries  instinctively  met 
the  interests  of  boys  of  secondary  age  by  its  methods.13 
Later  centuries  fell  away  from  this  spontaneous  and  natural 
method  to  something  that  grew  more  and  more  formal  and 
artificial.  It  was  not  a  wise  system  of  formal  education  added 
to  these  natural  means,  but  something  supplanting  them.  The 
twentieth  century  will  reorganize  method  along  the  line  of  the 
specific  needs  of  the  high  school  period,  regarding  the  secondary 
period  not  as  a  subordinate,  but  a  dominant  one,  having  the 
right  to  prescribe  conditions  by  which  it  relates  itself  to  other 
periods  and  to  life.14 

13  See  Chapter  IV. 
•  14  Some  Contrasts. —  This  advance  in  method  that  has  been  broadly 
outlined  may  be  partly   realized  by  a  brief   antithetic  outline  of  the 
average  method  of  the  last  century,  showing  what  the  pupil  needed  and 
what  he  received. 

The  individual  boy  or  girl  demanded  attention;  the  school  gave  it 


420  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Internal  and  external  freedom. —  This  organization  of  cur- 
ricula and  method  which  have  been  discussed  in  the  last  two 
chapters,  will  secure  healthful  internal  freedom  in  the  high 
school.  There  is  to  be  also  an  external  freedom,  the  counter- 
part of  the  internal.  In  the  nineteenth  century  the  college 
took  a  notable  step  toward  this  freedom  by  establishing  more 
elastic  entrance  requirements.14  The  plan  is  to  be  worked  out 
more  consistently  and  with  juster  treatment  of  all  elements  of 
the  secondary  course  of  training.  New  tests  of  fitness  will 
facilitate  and  enrich  the  freedom  of  the  high  school,  and  will 
help  us  to  come  nearer  to  the  power-test  for  determining  the 
progress  of  pupils. 

to  the  study-subject;  that  is  where  it  individualized  most.  A  multitude 
of  impulses  and  activities  demanded  expression ;  the  school  said  that 
expression  should  come  through  the  logical  development  of  the  subject 
as  suggested  to  some  adult  brain.  Impetuosity  was  there;  the  school 
tamed  it  by  formal  and  difficult  tasks,  having  almost  a  minimum  of  sug- 
gestion and  inspiration.  An  instinct  for  orientation,  for  relating,  for 
forming  great  and  inspiring  wholes,  was  present;  the  school  stifled  it 
with  the  memorizing  of  details  and  with  severe  formal  study.  Emo- 
tion was  budding,  to  be  nipped  by  the  cold  logic  of  books.  Social  im- 
pulses and  altruistic  thoughts  were  starting  forward,  to  be  barred  from 
the  great  life  of  the  world,  and  turned,  through  the  quest  of  study- 
subjects  into  the  egotistic  narrowness  condensed  in  the  expression, 
"what  is  there  in  it  for  me?"  The  restless,  hungry,  because  growing, 
physical  nature  called,  to  be  outshouted  by  the  "  course  of  study."  In- 
heritances conspicuous  in  the  adolescent,  and  demanding  nothing  short 
of  the  wisest  care  and  solicitude,  were  ignored  for  the  inheritances 
of  the  school.  The  adolescent  asked  for  sympathy;  the  sympathy  was 
given  to  the  physics  or  the  chemistry,  the  history  or  the  Latin.  In  gen- 
eral the  glowing  adolescent  was  chilled  and  contracted  by  the  cool 
ideas  of  men  as  applied  to  men ;  sometimes,  even  more  unwisely,  he 
was  given  riotous  latitude.  Many  of  these  things  were  good  in  their 
places  and  in  the  right  proportion,  but  they  lacked  that  human  element 
that  the  adolescent  craves,  if  he  is  to  achieve  anything  but  a  dwarfed 
development.  The  school  was  really  more  interested  in  its  curriculum 
than  in  humanity.  Hence  the  nervous  strain ;  hence  the  physical  abuse. 
The  school  perverted  and  cramped  and  sometimes  well-nigh  ruined. 
With  the  change  in  method  that  has  been  described  the  subjects  of  study 
will  not  suffer ;  they  will  be  enhanced  in  value. 


XXV 

THE   HIGH   SCHOOL  OF  THE  TWENTIETH   CENTURY ORGANIZA- 
TION,  EQUIPMENT,  ADMINISTRATION 

A  lost  adolescent  school. —  The  last  chapter  showed  that 
the  twentieth  century  high  school  is  to  be  one  adapted  to  adoles- 
cents. The  school  of  early  times, —  especially  the  early  Greek 
school,  was  a  fair  approximation  to  such  a  school.  As  shown 
in  earlier  chapters  the  school  for  adolescents  was  the  initial 
school.  It  came  long  before  the  elementary  school  was  inaug- 
urated. Its  instruction  and  training  were  simple  and  definite 
and  calculated  merely  to  induct  the  novice  into  the  inner  life  of 
the  community  and  make  him  possessor  of  the  choicest  inherit- 
ances of  the  race.  It  was  founded  on  an  intuitive  regard  for 
adolescent  characteristics.  In  the  course  of  the  centuries  this 
school,  or  an  essential  part  of  it,  was  lost.  The  manner  of 
losing  is  interesting.  In  early  times  adolescent  training  was  an 
initiation,  and  coincident  with,  or  in  close  connection  with, 
initiation  ceremonies.  There  were  no  professions  or  occupa- 
tions with  technique  that  required  study-preparation.  "  Life 
in  the  bush,"  *  or  apprenticeship,1  Greek  junior  citizenship,1 
or  the  Roman  tirocinium,1  supplied  all  the  technique  that  was 
necessary.  But,  beginning  with  the  sophist  schools,  there 
arose,  in  increasing  numbers,  professions  and  occupations  that 
required  more  and  more  insistent  study  and  longer  training. 
At  present  this  condition  is  more  marked  than  ever.  The  num- 
ber of  subjects  of  study  increased  amazingly.  Content  of 
studies  increased  very  notably  in  amount  and  quality.  Because 
of  these  growing  demands  the  secondary  school  was  subjected 
to  tremendous  pressure.  Its  tendency  was  to  formalize  its 
course  and  increase  the  amount  of  formal  study.  Its  eyes 
were  fixed  rather  upon  what  was  beyond  than  upon  itself,  upon 

1  These  training  periods,  it  will  be  remembered,  followed  the  initiation 
ceremonies. 

421 


422  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

preparation  for  a  "  higher  course  "  rather  than  upon  develop- 
ment of  genuine  secondary  school  power.  It  thus  lost  sight  of 
typical  adolescent  aims  and  processes. 

Pressure  from  above. —  The  pressure  came  from  two  direc- 
tions. It  came  most  from  the  university,  to  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  secondary  school  early  became  attached  as  a  prepara- 
tory school.  The  striking  increase  in  demands  upon  the  higher 
school  for  training  experts  and  specialists  in  all  departments 
of  effort,  industrial,  commercial,  scholastic,  professional,  in- 
creased the  exactions  put  upon  secondary  education  as  a  foun- 
dation for  university  and  technical  college.  Through  this  rela- 
tion the  secondary  school  came  to  be  devoted  to  a  course  of 
formal  training  of  a  rather  intense  type,  in  fact  one  assimilated 
to  the  college  type,  and  this  status  has  not  yet  been  radically 
changed. 

Pressure  from  vocational  education. —  On  the  other  hand, 
since  the  revision  of  its  relations  to  the  university,  giving  it 
greater  freedom  of  development,  and  more  particularly  since 
the  demand  for  "  vocational  training  "  became  urgent,  the  sec- 
ondary school  in  general  and  especially  the  high  school  rapidly 
became  the  universal  preparatory  school  for  life,  and  as  such 
was  subject  to  the  most  intense  pressure  a  school  has  ever  seen. 
It  became  essentially  formal  and  technical,  yielding  to  the 
idea,  to  which  it  was  long  subjected,  that  the  study  of  books 
and  formal  training  in  subjects  were  the  preparation  to  be 
sought. 

A  longer  preparation  for  the  high  school. —  As  these  re- 
quirements were  increased  the  high  school  in  turn  increased 
demands  upon  elementary  education.  The  tendency  was  thus 
to  lengthen  and  postpone  the  period  of  secondary  education  till 
its  outer  limit  was  several  years  later  than  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Through  influence  from  above  the 
scope  and  character  of  its  work  became  radically  different  from 
those  of  the  initial  secondary  school,  with  its  traditional  aims 
and  methods  and  its  stimulus  to  initiative.2     From  pressure  at 

2  The  extension  and  postponement  of  the  period  of  secondary  edu- 
cation and  the  demand  for  professional  and  occupational  education  do 
not  explain  this  difference  fully.  From  the  early  years  of  university 
attachment  the  university  supplied  both  teachers  and  methods.    Even 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     423 

both  ends  of  the  line  secondary  education  gave  way  in  the 
middle.  One  section  of  it  was  forced  out, —  that  which  was  of 
a  genuinely  adolescent  nature.  Pupils  thus  lost  a  distinctive 
element  of  secondary  education  that  is,  in  fact,  the  central  ele- 
ment, and  were  projected  from  the  formal  instruction  of  the 
higher  elementary,  or  grammar  school,  directly  into  college 
aims  and  method.  They  lost  a  content,  a  method,  a  point  of 
view,  a  directing  and  impelling  force  for  effort  and  work  that 
only  a  genuine  adolescent  school  can  give.  Both  nature  and 
science  impress  this  fact.  To  this  is  largely  due  the  unsatisfy- 
ing results  of  present  secondary  education,  the  failure  of  the 
high  school  to  hold  the  attention  and  foster  the  interest  of  a 
majority  of  high  school  pupils  for  a  sustained  four-year  cur- 
riculum. 

The  adolescent  school  restored. —  The  twentieth  century 
must  bring  back  this  lost  but  not  outworn  element  of  secondary 
education.  To  do  this  it  must  consider  pupils  from  the  age 
of  twelve  upward  to  the  college  limit.3  It  will  therefore  no 
longer  be  a  four-year  high  school,  but  one  of  larger  extent. 
This  will  permit  us  not  only  to  restore  that  adolescent  training 
now  so  keenly  needed,  but,  as  the  high  school  is  a  finishing 
school  in  so  many  cases,  to  include  something  of  more  formal 
and  technical  training. 

The  twentieth  century  high  school  not  a  four-year  school 
—  A  double  school. —  The  twentieth  century  high  school  will 
therefore  be  a  reorganized  and  a  double  school.  The  first  sec- 
tion will  take  pupils  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade  of  the  ele- 
mentary school.  By  that  time  all  that  is  valuable  in  the  present 
congested  and  anachronous  elementary  curriculum  can  be  well 
done  and  with  higher  results  that  will  make  a  better  basis 
for  higher  work,  or  a  better  introduction  to  life.3  The  high 
school  will  then  give  them  a  preliminary  training  of  the  initia- 
tory type,  suited  and  necessary  to  early  adolescent  years  and 

before  the  establishment  of  the  mediaeval  university  Greece  and  Rome 
had  established  a  higher  education,  with  the  secondary  school  as  feeder. 
The  secondary  school  very  early  lost  its  distinctive  method  and  was 
supplied  with  another, —  the  one  that  was  handiest,  not  the  one  best 
fitted  for  it. 

3  This  presupposes  a  genuine  revision  of  the  elementary  curriculum  on 
educational  principles. 


424  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

calculated  to  stimulate  ambition  to  carry  training  to  a  higher 
stage.  The  second  section  of  the  school  will  be  devoted  more 
to  the  technique  of  studies  and  vocations,  verging  toward  the 
collegiate  type.  Aside  from  the  practical  considerations  in 
the  case,  nature  herself  seems  to  have  established  a  line  of 
cleavage  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade,  both  in  subjects  of  study 
and  in  psychologic  characteristics.  Again  at  the  age  of  about 
eighteen  comes  a  dividing  point  in  the  period  of  adolescence, 
beyond  which  the  adolescent  seems  to  be  ready  for  a  type  of 
work  somewhat  different  from  that  of  preceding  years. 

The  "  six-year  "  high  school. —  To  meet  the  need  of  a  reor- 
ganized high  school  the  six-year  high  school  appeared  in  out- 
line in  book  schemes  about  the  close  of  the  last  century.  It  is 
just  beginning  to  work  itself  out  in  actual  school  plans  and 
forms.  In  this  six-year  high  school  there  are  two  sections 
each  occupying  three  years.  It  is  a  question  whether  the 
magic  of  numbers  has  not  influenced  the  division.  Six  and  six, 
and  three  and  three  seem  artificial.  They  have  not  yet  been 
proved.  The  six  is  more  probable  than  the  three.  But  these 
are  only  details.  Whatever  the  actual  form  of  the  new  high 
school  may  be,  one  thing  is  plain, —  the  adolescent  school  and 
its  legitimate  work  are  to  be  restored,  for  it  has  a  distinct  and 
imperative  mission,  as  a  foundation  for  secondary  education. 
At  present  there  is  no  foundation,  and  as  a  makeshift  we  are 
using  the  elementary  school  as  such,  so  far  removed  from  it 
in  spirit  and  work  that  it  makes  a  false  base  and  renders  the 
structure  insecure. 

Organization  of  the  new  school  —  Distinctive  parts. —  In 
the  reorganized  school  the  adolescent  school  will  occupy  the 
first  section,  whether  of  three  or  four  years.  From  its  very 
nature  it  will  have  a  distinct  organization,  administration,  cur- 
riculum-content and  method.  It  will  for  a  time  be  the  hardest 
school  in  the  whole  series  to  adapt  to  its  special  aims.  Teach- 
ers must  be  trained,  study-content  must  be  worked  out,  organi- 
zation and  administration  must  be  determined  with  special  ref- 
erence to  these  aims  and  to  adolescent  characteristics  through 
which  the  aims  are  to  be  reached.  So  far  as  we  have  provided 
any  special  training  at  all  we  have  been  chiefly  concerned  with 
preparing  teachers  to  teach  high  school  subjects  and  pupils 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     425 

in  general.  We  must  now  train  them  to  teach  and  administer 
in  special  sections  of  high  school  work.4  Teachers  must  be 
equipped  to  give  real  initiation  into  typical  subjects  and  pur- 
poses, and  particularly  into  great  ideals,  with  the  emphasis  on 
the  adolescent.  The  teacher  here  must  forget  college  work 
and  method  that  have  been  impressed  upon  him,  must  be  con- 
tent to  suppress  many  details  that  have  generally  hampered 
early  high  school  work,  to  take  the  subject  in  the  large,  and 
to  put  into  free  action  the  inspirational  side  of  teaching.  In 
this  way  the  high  school  beginner  will  have  a  real  induction  into 
the  new  world  of  science  and  art,  literature  and  history,  and  all 
the  rest.  He  will  get  at  just  meanings  and  values,  and  gain 
wide  views  and  contacts,  as  a  preliminary  to  a  strong  grip  at 
some  particular  vantage  point  later.  On  success  here  depends 
success  in  the  advanced  school  and  in  life.  If  a  teacher  has 
not  the  gift,  or  acquisition,  of  large,  inspirational  teaching,  the 
adolescent  school  is  not  the  place  for  him. 

Methods  of  the  two  schools  to  be  differentiated. —  The  pre- 
vious chapter  has  given  in  some  detail  a  forecast  of  the  method 
of  the  coming  high  school,  as  it  would  appear  from  a  study  of 
present  tendencies  and  of  the  conditions  to  be  met.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  typical  adolescent  method  will  come  in  the  first  sec- 
tion of  the  newly  organized  high  school,  which  may  conven- 
iently be  named  the  Junior  High  School.  Method  in  the  Senior 
High  School  and  even  beyond  will  have  much  of  the  same 
spirit,  but  it  will  shade  from  that  of  the  junior  school  toward 
more  technical  work,  for  it  is  time  to  be  getting  the  technique 
of  study  and  vocation.  For  this  reason  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  the  arrangement  of  the  two  high  schools  by  threes  is  a 
scientific  one. 

All  this  means  that  the  two  high  schools  must  have  distinct 
plants,  or  distinct  suites,  and  distinct  equipment,  including 
teaching  force.  They  are  so  distinct  in  aims  and  methods  that 
they  cannot  share  opportunities,  except  in  a  general  way, —  in 
museums,  in  collections,  and,  perhaps,  in  laboratories. 

4  A  training  school  for  these  teachers  will  naturally  be  affiliated  with 
a  great  high  school,  i.e.,  a  "  university  of  high  schools."  For  stimulus 
to  broad  scholarship  and  for  various  advantages  that  are  patent,  it 
should  also  be  affiliated  with  a  university. 


426  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

But  high  schools  and  departments  of  schools  are  to  be 
concentrated,  not  scattered. —  So  far  we  have  been  consider- 
ing organization  and  administration  from  the  point  of  view  of 
school  ages  and  general  educational  aims.  It  is  quite  as  inter- 
esting to  consider  them  from  the  point  of  view  of  special  aims. 
We  found  in  Chapter  XXIII  that  the  coming  high  school  is 
to  have  various  programs  of  studies  suited  to  different  depart- 
ments or  schools  into  which  high  school  education  is  becoming 
differentiated.  Each  program  will  give  rise  to  several  curricula 
adapted  to  special  ends.5  The  tendency  in  large  centers  has 
been  to  place  these  differentiated  departments  or  schools  in  dif- 
ferent locations,  one  in  one  part  of  the  city,  another  in  another 
part.  Such  a  policy  is  untenable.  The  best  fulfilment  of  twen- 
tieth century  high  school  aims  requires  a  central  and  well- 
articulated,  rather  than  a  scattered  administration.  A  separate 
organization  for  industrial  and  vocational  education  would  de- 
feat its  fundamental  purpose.  The  movement  in  high  school 
education  must  be  centripetal. 

The  twentieth  century  high  school  is  therefore  to  be  a  com- 
munity of  schools, —  a  university  of  schools,  having  common 
interests  and  common  tasks,  but  each  school  organized  for  its 
special  end,  and  at  the  same  time  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  broad 
training,  develop  broad  interests,  and  make  broad  thinkers. 

Dangers  of  isolation. —  In  the  early  days  of  specialization 
the  tendency  was  to  make  one's  study  and  thought  too  restricted, 
limiting  it  to  some  minute  field,  and  especially  separating  it 
from  necessary  correlations.  The  result  was  a  narrow  spe- 
cialization that  was  likely  to  prove  weak  through  its  own  little- 
ness and  inexactness.6  A  similar  separation  and  isolation 
would  hinder  or  thwart  the  main  aim  of  high  school  education, 
viz.,  to  make  a  true  citizen  of  the  world,  a  cementing  and  unify- 
ing force,  not  a  mere  member  of  a  group  with  disintegrating 
tendencies.  Civic  conservation  and  progress  depend  in  large 
degree  upon  mutual  respect  between  different  groups  of  con- 

e  See  Chapter  XXIII. 

6  Specialization  is  a  fundamental  necessity  in  all  departments  of  human 
effort.  It  inevitably  brings  a  kind  of  separation.  To  fulfil  its  purpose 
it  requires  a  unifying  and  broadening  spirit, —  requires,  as  an  absolute 
characteristic,  ability  and  disposition  to  think  in  fundamental  social, 
civic,  industrial,  and  political  units. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     427 

tributors  to  community  wealth,  tangible  and  intangible,  and 
upon  the  understanding  and  appreciation  of  one  another's 
interests. 

Community  ideals  dependent  upon  centralization  of  high 
school  education. —  The  secondary  school  is  the  basal  school 
for  starting  these  social  ideas.  The  very  psychology  of  the 
secondary  school  pupil  shows  that  this  is  the  vantage  time  of 
life  for  developing  those  habits  of  thought  that  make  for  indus- 
trial peace  and  for  true  democracy  in  all  directions.  The  high 
school  with  its  new  vocational  work  offers  the  finest  sort  of 
opportunity  for  carrying  out  this  principle  and  carrying  it  far 
enough  to  settle  these  ideas  for  life.  Concentration  of  all  de- 
partments of  high  school  work  in  a  single  plant  furnishes  the 
exact  conditions  needed  for  training  to  think  in  those  funda- 
mental units  upon  which  successful  democracy  rests.  It  makes 
the  right  conditions  also  for  creating  a  community  of  industrial 
interests.  It  gives  a  better  understanding  of  the  other  fellow 
and  his  work,  and  at  the  same  time  it  brings  greater  zest  into 
high  school  life  and  larger  educational  values. 

A  co-educational  school. —  The  spirit  of  the  reasoning  we 
have  been  following  will  make  the  twentieth  century  high  school 
a  coeducational  rather  than  a  divided  institution.  Contact  of 
the  feminine  mind  and  the  masculine  mind  is  broadening  for 
both.  A  girl's  points  of  view  and  intuitions  are  different  from 
the  boy's.  Appreciation  comes  through  opportunities  to  under- 
stand one  another  broadly.  How  could  this  be  possible  if  high 
school  education  were  to  be  divided?  Considered  from  either 
the  social  or  the  intellectual  point  of  view  then  coeducation 
argues  itself.  The  argument  from  social  economy  and  school 
finances  is  patent.7 

7  The  social  argument  is  stated  rather  aptly  in  the  following  quota- 
tion : — 

"  The  young  woman  who  knows  young  men  only  in  dress  suits 
will  get  a  very  false  opinion  of  them.  Woman  in  her  hour  of  ease  is  a 
very  inferior  creature  to  woman  at  work,  and  it  is  inevitable  that  a  man 
who  knows  her  only  in  the  former  guise  will  get  an  unfavorable  opinion 
of  the  sex.  When  man  gets  to  looking  on  woman  as  an  amusement 
his  moral  ruin  is  impending,  because  he  can  find  plenty-  of  women  who 
are  very  amusing,  but  not  otherwise  fitted  for  his  companionship.  Men 
and  women  will  always  attract  each  other,  but  it  is  only  by  meeting  in 
their  every  day  work  as  helpmates  and  rivals,  as  comrades  and  com- 


428  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Some  limitations. —  But,  as  was  shown  in  the  Appendix  to 
Chapter  XX,  the  physiological  and  mental  development  of  the 
two  sexes  differs,  if  not  in  kind,  yet  in  time.  Girls  mature 
materially  earlier  than  boys.  Hence  the  same  kind  and  degree 
of  scholarship-results  cannot  be  expected  of  both  at  the  same 
age.  As  already  suggested,  therefore,  there  will  naturally  be 
some  separation,  in  order  to  bring  out  the  best  educational  re- 
sults for  both.  But  at  the  same  time  the  school  organization 
will  provide  abundant  opportunity,  both  in  class-room  and 
otherwise,  for  the  two  sexes  to  associate  and  to  study  and 
understand  one  another  under  most  approved  conditions. 

Principles  of  concentration. —  A  brief  outline  of  the  20th 
century  high  school  toward  which  our  chapters  have  been  lead- 
ing will  illustrate,  and  at  the  same  time  extend  and  strengthen, 
the  argument.  The  school  must  meet  three  conditions:  —  I. 
The  Senior  High  School  must  be  distinct  from  the  Junior  High 
School.  2.  Each  department  of  the  senior  school  must  have 
equipment  and  facilities  for  doing  its  special  work  in  an  enter- 
prising and  masterful  manner,  and  at  the  same  time  must  have 
access  to  means  for  a  general,  to  support  the  special,  education. 
3.  There  must  be  opportunity  for  exchange  of  ideas  between 
departments  and  for  rather  intimate  association  of  pupils  of 
one  department  with  those  of  another.  The  outline  will  be  as 
follows  for  a  large  municipality.  For  smaller  communities  and 
for  scattered  communities  details  will  differ  to  suit  special  con- 
ditions, but  the  fundamental  idea  will  be  the  same. 

General  plan. —  1.  A  site  that  will  afford  an  environment 
in  keeping  with  the  highest  secondary  school  ideals. 

2.  A  general  school  building,  with  ample  assembly  facili- 
ties, a  suite  of  class-rooms,  and  general  equipment  in  the  form 
of  library,  collections,  and  other  means  of  interest  and  instruc- 
tion. This  will  serve  at  once  as  a  special  school  for  those  fol- 
lowing a  general  curriculum  or  a  literary  curriculum,  as  a  refer- 
ence hall,  and  particularly  as  a  meeting  place  for  various  groups 
of  pupils,  and  even  for  the  whole  pupil  body,  for  common  lec- 

panions,  that  they  will  respect  each  other.  All  artificial  substitutes  for 
such  normal  mingling,  whether  devised  for  scholastic,  religious,  _  or 
financial  purposes,  have  resulted  in  diseased  conditions  of  the  im- 
agination."   From  an  editorial  in  the  New  York  Independent. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     429 

tures  and  exercises  and  for  the  daily  initial  program  that  will 
be  both  instructive  and  inspirational.  This  central  school  may 
be  named  the  school  of  literature,  art,  and  music  (though  this 
detail  is  not  an  essential  part  of  the  plan). 

3.  Various  schools  grouped  around  this  center. —  Closely 
connected  with  this  central  hall  by  protected  passages  or  other 
ready  means  of  access  will  be  various  schools,  each  fully 
equipped  with  appliances  for  doing  its  peculiar  work,  and  an 
assembly  room  of  its  own  to  be  used  for  special  purposes.  In 
this  way  the  following  additional  schools  will  be  provided : 

(a)  A  Science  School. 

(b)  A  Mechanic  Arts  School. 

(c)  A  Commercial  School. 

(d)  A  Horticultural  and  Agricultural  School. 

(e)  A  Technical  School. 

(f)  A  Supplementary  Vocational  School. 

Reasons  for  a  high  school  of  horticulture  and  agriculture. — 
Only  the  fourth  one  in  the  list  will  perhaps  suggest  a  query. 
A  little  consideration,  however,  will  show  that  it  has  a  distinct 
place  even  in  the  city.  1.  High  school  opportunities  should 
include  all  standard  activities ;  otherwise  some  departments  of 
endeavor  will  be  shut  off  that  may  be  the  very  ones  in  which 
certain  pupils  would  come  nearest  to  fulfilling  the  measure  of 
their  ability.  To  choose  the  best  each  pupil  should  have  access 
to  all.  Horticulture  and  agriculture  demand  as  careful  educa- 
tion and  as  much  science,  and  bring  into  play  as  high  a  degree 
of  mentality,  as  any  vocation  or  profession.  They  offer  as 
many  charms  as  the  best.  They  give  returns  equal  to  the  best. 
To  shut  off  access  to  this  great  field  of  effort  therefore  is  to 
leave  potential  units  of  efficiency  undeveloped ;  for  the  school 
in  question  would  give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  waken  dormant 
interests  in  nature  and  nature's  occupations  and,  in  many  cases, 
to  develop  a  skill  in  rural  vocations  that  would  give  a  broader 
success  and  satisfaction  than  would  be  possible  in  any  other 
field  of  endeavor.  The  opportunity  for  broadening  thought 
and  culture  is  evident  and  gives  added  value  to  the  plan.  2. 
There  must  be  interchange  between  city  and  rural  life.  The 
old  stream  cannot  go  on  flowing  from  country  to  city  and  pre- 
serve the  integrity  of  population.     There  must  be  two  parallel 


43° 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


streams  flowing  in  opposite  directions.  Many  residents  of 
cities  would  succeed  better  in  the  country.  The  school  we  are 
discussing  would  re-form  habits,  and  it  would  start  new  habits 
in  city  children  that  would  take  them  to  country  opportunities 
and  country  wealth,  material  and  otherwise.  To  cut  off 
avenues  of  effort  in  a  city  and  in  city  schools  is  a  sure  bid  for 
proletariat  conditions  and  a  proletariat  spirit.  3.  Much  city 
space  is  now  wasted,  considered  either  from  the  point  of  view 
of  beauty  or  from  that  of  other  utility.  A  utilization  of  vacant 
lots  and  home  enclosures,  which  would  be  a  part  of  the  system- 
atic program  of  the  school  in  question,  would  add  indefinite 
thousands  to  means  of  support  and  greatly  add  to  a  city's 
wealth  and  beauty.  4.  The  *'  City  Beautiful  "  would  also  be  a 
direct  object  of  such  a  school,  stimulating  interest  in  beautify- 
ing public  and  private  grounds  and  giving  definite  instruction  in 
the  practical  working  out  of  these  ideas.  Public  parks  might 
well  be  in  charge  of  the  school  and  thus  managed  with  a  new 
economy.  Actual  participation  in  the  management  and  care 
of  such  things  enhances  their  value  and  significance  in  the  minds 
of  the  people.  Too  much  done  for  any  class  of  people,  with 
no  thought  or  care  or  exertion  on  their  part,  cheapens  the  thing 
done  even  in  their  estimation,  and  does  not  encourage  a  public, 
or  civic,  spirit. 

Social  and  financial  advantages  of  a  university  of  high 
schools. —  We  are  to  have  then,  as  already  suggested,  a  uni- 
versity of  high  schools.  Here  in  close  association  the  student 
body,  though  separated  naturally  into  special  groups,  is  as 
naturally  united  in  common  interests  and  aims.  It  is  supplied 
with  the  best  conditions  for  following  special  programs  toward 
individual  aims  and  general  programs  toward  the  central  aim 
of  intelligent,  well-directed  citizenship.  Each  group  learns  to 
be  appreciative  of  every  form  of  endeavor  and  generous  in  ac- 
cording other  groups  opportunities  for  expression  and  develop- 
ment. Each  one  becomes  better  equipped  and  better  disposed 
to  work  for  common  interests,  because  it  can  approximate 
others'  conception  of  the  fundamental  ideas  on  which  healthy 
civic  development  rests.  Because  of  this  mutual  sympathy, 
appreciation,  and  respect  any  community  will  have  a  surer,  more 
rapid,  and  more  economic  development.     There  will  still  be 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     431 

healthful  variety  in  unity,  but  the  fantastic  and  wasteful  diver- 
gence of  the  present  will  be  reduced.  Such  an  organization  as 
is  suggested  will  result  in  large  financial  economy  in  school  ex- 
penditure and  at  the  same  time  give  the  best  conditions  for 
economy  of  time,  effort,  and  method  in  education.  Community 
ideas  and  community  virtues  are  more  thoroughly  and  more 
quickly  developed  through  a  community  of  work. 

Special  features  of  the  Junior  High  School. —  In  the  Junior 
High  School  departments  may  not  be  so  thoroughly  differ- 
entiated and  organized  into  schools,  for  obvious  reasons.  This 
is  not  the  period  for  specializing.  It  is  rather  the  time,  as  has 
so  often  been  emphasized,  for  initiation  into  great  ideas  and 
subjects,  preparatory  to  more  technical  work.  And  yet,  as  so 
many  will,  for  the  present,  end  their  school  life  here*  there 
may  be  some  elementary  specialization.  Such  specialization, 
however,  must  be  infused  with  the  spirit  of  adolescent  educa- 
tion founded  upon  the  principles  that  issue  from  adolescent 
psychology ;  it  must  be  adapted  to  the  adolescent's  point  of  view. 

The  Township  High  School  an  illustration  of  successful 
centralization. —  That  the  centralized  high  school  is  practicable 
for  other  than  very  large  communities  is  evident  from  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Township  High  School  of  Illinois  that  has  been  de- 
scribed with  some  detail  in  a  previous  chapter.8  Its  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  are  a  central  plant  accommodating  various 
departments  or  schools,  curricula  appealing  to  all  interests,  and 
dormitories  for  each  sex  to  meet  the  needs  of  pupils  whose 
homes  are  too  remote  to  make  daily  trips  feasible.  These 
facilities  furnish  a  stimulus  and  outlet  for  all  the  secondary 
activities  of  a  large  district.  So  broad  are  the  opportunities 
offered  that  the  school  performs  some  of  the  functions  of  a  col- 
lege, in  addition  to  those  of  a  high  school.  It  is  evident  that 
the  conditions  for  such  broadening  are  favorable,  whether  we 
take  the  point  of  view  of  economy,  or  that  of  organization. 
The  popularity  of  this  type  of  high  school  is  prophetic  of  the 
larger  growth  of  the  more  fundamental  idea  of  centralization. 

Extension  work. —  In  the  twentieth  century  high  school 
there  are  to  be  social  relations  outside  of  the  pupil  body,  for 
the  school  is  going  to  enlarge  its  clientele  by  extending  its  ad- 

8  See  Appendix  of  Chapter  XXIII. 


432  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

vantages  and  inspiration  to  the  general  public,  and  particularly 
to  that  part  of  it  that  is  still  young  and  has  missed  high  school 
work.  In  other  words  it  is  to  add  "  public  "  curricula  to  its 
other  specialized  curricula,  to  provide  continuous  and  sustained 
work  of  different  grades  for  the  non-school  public.  In  this 
way  it  will  unite  community  and  school  in  closer  bonds  of  ap- 
preciation. It  will  enlist  both  students  and  teachers  in  a  co- 
operative "  community  work,"  since  such  a  scheme  will  furnish 
various  opportunities,  within  their  power  and  time,  to  render 
service,  though  the  main  work  will  be  done  by  a  special  staff. 

Universal  high  school  education. —  This  twentieth  century 
high  school,  adapting  itself  wisely  to  all  secondary  school 
interests,  and  organizing  itself  in  close  harmony  with  social, 
industrial,  and  culture  conditions  and  opportunities,  with  its 
differentiated  curricula  and  its  "  extension  "  work,  is  to  provide 
facilities  for  the  attendance  of  all  children  of  secondary  age 
and  all  others  who  desire  secondary  school  privileges.  More 
than  this,  it  is  to  make  its  facilities  seem  so  worth  while  that  it 
will  not  only  attract  attendance,  but  almost  compel  it.  Its  mis- 
sion is  to  make  attendance  universal.  As  there  are  in  the 
United  States  more  than  eleven  million  persons  whose  ages  lie 
between  fifteen  and  nineteen  (inclusive),  while  in  all  the  sec- 
ondary schools  of  the  country,  public  and  private,  there  are 
only  about  four  million  pupils,  it  is  evident  that  the  high  school 
has  a  tremendous  task  before  it.9 

A  whole-year  and  long-day  school. —  The  high  school  will 
carry  on  its  work  not  for  certain  restricted  months  and  hours. 
It  will  be  universal  in  another  way.  It  will  be  a  whole-year 
and  long-day  school,  with  the  necessary  relays  in  instruction, 
quarter  year  credits  in  place  of  half  year  credits,  evening  classes 
and  day  classes.     It  is  thus  to  come  up  to  its  full  economic 

9  We  shall  of  course  meet  the  objection  of  those  who  unfortunately 
believe  that  secondary  education  should  not  be  given  to  all.  But  even 
if  we  make  large  allowance  here,  the  task  of  the  high  school  will  be 
sufficiently  great.  The  aim,  however,  should  be,  "  universal  high  school 
education  for  the  capable,"  and  the  capable  are  all  the  normal.  See 
Chapter  XXII,  page  356. 

On  this  matter  of  numbers  and  proportions  and  aims  William  E. 
Chancellor  has  a  telling  and  suggestive  paragraph  of  which  use  has 
here  been  made.    For  fuller  figures  see  page  357,  note  9. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     433 

possibilities.  This  very  fact  will  make  it  possible  to  extend 
the  ministries  of  high  school  education  without  a  correspond- 
ing increase  of  plants  and  current  expenses.10 

But  we  must  consider  more  than  the  outside  of  the  high 
school,  the  shell.  Unfortunately  at  the  present  time  more  atten- 
tion is  being  given  to  this  than  to  some  other  things  that  are  quite 
as  necessary.  The  equipment  of  the  plant  is  the  vital  point  in 
high  school  economy.  The  twentieth  century  equipment  is  to 
show  a  marked  advance  over  that  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Equipment, —  material. —  The  typical  high  school  of  the  late 
nineteenth  century  had  the  regulation  laboratories  for  physics 
and  chemistry,  sometimes  a  makeshift  laboratory  for  biology, 
a  general  library  of  a  formal  character  and  of  very  modest 
proportions,  a  stock  of  text-books,  and  the  typical  school  seat. 
To  this  was  sometimes  added  a  lunch-room  of  a  quasi  com- 
mercial nature.  The  coming  high  school  is  to  have  a  labora- 
tory for  each  department, —  not  merely  for  the  sciences,  but 
for  history,  literature,  music,  art,  vocational  work,  and  all  the 
rest.  Each  is  to  be  fully  equipped  with  appliances  and  collec- 
tions appropriate  to  the  department,  for  studying  things  as  they 
are  rather  than  through  text-books.  This  will  relieve  the 
abstractions  of  the  older  school.  With  each  laboratory  is  to 
go,  as  a  coordinate  element,  a  broad,  well-selected  collection 
of  books,  written  from  the  stand-point  of  the  adolescent  and 
what  he  can  and  ought  to  get  out  of  high  school  work.  This 
will  relieve  the  forcing  and  general  anachronism  of  high  school 
method.  To  facilitate  this  more  vital  work  and  to  supply  more 
hygienic  conditions  the  seating  of  the  school  is  to  undergo 
striking  reforms.  Tables  and  chairs  suitable  for  real  work, 
instead  of  mere  book-plodding,  will  take  the  place  of  the 
familiar  stationary  desk  and  seat.     Finally  the  lunch  room  is  to 

10  Details  for  working  out  such  a  plan  would  occupy  a  volume.  But 
it  should  be  noted  here  that  in  carrying  out  the  vocational  function  of 
the  high  school  abundant  opportunity  will  be  given  for  combining  two 
kinds  of  work,  study-work  and  the  work  of  some  occupations  that  may 
reasonably  claim  the  attention  of  high  school  pupils.  This  will  provide 
for  general  culture  and  for  vocational  training  at  the  same  time;  in 
fact  the  former  is  part  of  the  latter.  It  will  provide  a  wholesome  com- 
bination of  interests  and  give  steadying  power  to  a  large  class  of  persons 
not  now  adequately  reached  by  high  school  facilities. 


434 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


be  a  correlated  rather  than  an  isolated  factor  in  high  school  life. 
It  is  to  have  intimate  relations,  as  to  principle  and  organization, 
with  the  physical  and  vocational  departments.  These  are  the 
fundamentals  of  the  material  equipment  of  the  school.  Aside 
from  these  each  department  or  school  will  distinguish  itself  by- 
details  suited  to  the  particular  school  or  community  and  giving 
a  fine  outlet  for  initiative  on  the  part  of  school  authorities. 
One  can  at  once  picture  many  details  appropriate  for  individual 
schools  of  this  university  of  high  schools. 

Equipment  —  Teachers  —  Their  qualifications. —  With  this 
material  equipment  is  to  come  its  complement,  higher  teaching 
power.     As  already  indicated,  there  will  be  many  more  teach- 
ers proportionally  than  now,  a  gain  that  will  by  itself  secure 
better  adolescent  scholarship  and  larger  educational  values  gen- 
erally, both  in  training  and  in  administration.     The  advance  in 
teaching  qualifications,  however,  is  to  be  more  significant  than 
increase  in  the  number  of  teachers.     The  nineteenth  century 
gave  most  attention  to  the  knowledge  side  of  the  teacher's 
equipment.     It  followed  at  best  a  supposititious  method  in  its 
high  school  teaching.     The  twentieth  century  is  to  have  far 
broader  training  for  secondary  school  teaching,  and  is  to  make 
this  training   an   absolute   requirement    for   every   secondary 
school  teacher.     The  school  in  which  this  training  will  be  con- 
ducted is  to  organize  a  genuine  adolescent  method  for  the  re- 
discovered adolescent  school,  in  the  direction  of  the  method 
principles  noted  in  the  previous  chapter.     It  will  be  the  center 
of  diffusion  for  this  more  vital  method.     There  will  be  devel- 
oped a  secondary  school  teacher  who  has  not  only  a  wider  and 
richer  knowledge  of  his  subjects  1X  than  has  been  common  be- 
fore, but  a  lively  sympathy  with  the  new  method  based  upon  a 
sympathetic    knowledge    of    the    psychology    of    adolescence. 
Such  a  teacher  will  be  able  to  determine  and  utilize  high  school 
centers  of  attention,  to  organize  and  unify  all  effort  for  more 
definite  and  more  characteristic  results,  and  to  transfuse  pupils 
with  the  counterpart  of  his  own  enthusiasm. 

Sexes  more  evenly  represented  in  the  teaching  force. —  In 
this  distinctive  teaching  force  the  sexes  are  to  be  more  evenly 

11  Not  merely  knowledge,  but  power  to  select,  adapt,  and  apply  with 
a  view  to  true  adolescent  aims. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     435 

represented.  Adolescence  has  specific  gains  to  be  derived  from 
each  sex  and  must  suffer  if  cut  off  from  due  opportunity  to 
secure  these  gains.  This  would  be  true  even  if  our  schools 
were  not  organized  on  the  principle  of  coeducation.  With 
such  an  organization  it  is  more  emphatically  true. 

Supervision. —  But  we  need  to  utilize  the  best  in  a  corps 
of  teachers  and  to  unify  and  correlate  all  teaching  effort.  We 
must  secure  greater  economy  and  effectiveness  in  the  use  of 
educational  material.  We  must  be  able  to  mobilize  all  effective 
values  in  the  high  school.  This  is  especially  necessary  for  suc- 
cess in  the  crucial  epoch  of  development  before  the  individual 
is  thrust  upon  the  responsibility  of  the  scholastic  or  the  world- 
university.  Provision  must  therefore  be  made  for  organizing 
the  material  and  human  factors  in  the  high  school  and  uniting 
them  in  the  most  productive  educational  work.  Hence  the 
element  of  supervision  must  be  enlarged,  without,  however, 
destroying  the  initiative  of  the  individual  teacher.  A  keen 
observer  remarks :  —  "  The  high  school  needs  one  assistant 
principal  with  purely  supervisory  duties  for  every  fifteen  or 
eighteen  teachers.  It  cannot  be  run  profitably  with  no  over- 
sight of  teachers  by  superiors  solely  devoted  to  that  purpose." 
We  supply  a  great  deal  of  purely  supervisory  assistance  in  the 
elementary  school.  In  the  equally  critical  secondary  period, 
the  last  vantage  period  for  determining  educational  and  per- 
sonal interests  and  for  forming  the  guiding  habits  of  life,  we 
should  have  equally  careful  supervision.  All  the  facts  of  sec- 
ondary school  life  support  such  conclusions.  The  advance  in 
organization  that  has  been  suggested  may  easily  double  the 
efficiency  of  the  high  school.  The  looser  administration  of 
the  past  is  a  characteristic  derived  from  the  college  through 
the.  influences  described  in  earlier  chapters. 

Administration. —  Administration  in  the  twentieth  century 
high  school  is  to  be  determined  by  special  high  school  charac- 
teristics that  have  already  been  dwelt  upon.  In  the  increase  of 
administrative  units  in  the  personnel  of  the  school  the  principal 
will  become  more  distinctly  an  organizer,  unifier,  and  inspirer. 
To  make  him  more  fully  master  of  his  opportunities  he  is  to  be 
supplied  with  a  business  manager  who  will  have  charge  of  the 
purely  business  details  of  the  schools  or  departments  in  the 


436  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

administrative  plan.  In  the  larger  systems  a  business  man- 
ager will  be  required  for  each  school  of  the  university  of  high 
schools. 

Relation  of  teaching  and  administration. —  But  teaching 
itself  involves  administration.  The  old  notion  that  a  teacher 
has  two  distinct  functions,  the  function  of  teaching  and  the 
function  of  disciplining,  whatever  that  may  have  meant,  is  a 
false  one.  A  good  teacher  and  a  poor  disciplinarian  or  the 
reverse  is  an  impossible  combination.  Teaching  power  most 
intimately  involves  power  to  organize  and  administer  all  class- 
room forces  for  lively  and  effective  educational  results.  It  is 
as  one  of  the  fundamentals  of  teaching-method  that  class-room 
management  attains  significance.  A  genuine  adolescent  cur- 
riculum and  curriculum-content,  with  their  effective  ideals, 
teachers  with  adolescent  aims  and  method  carried  out  in  the 
new  spirit,  and  an  educational  environment  supplied  by  the 
school  site  and  the  material  equipment  of  the  school  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  affect  and  forward  administration  in 
many  ways.  Every  fine  adjustment  here  goes  far  toward 
directing  activities  in  normal,  healthful  channels.  The  govern- 
ment side  of  administration  is  largely  settled  here. 

Directing  principles. —  But  there  is  need  of  some  inform- 
ing principle  that  shall  give  scope,  direction  and  force  to  man- 
agement and  administration.  If  we  follow  out  the  aim  of 
which  we  have  caught  fore-views  at  different  points  in  the  last 
chapters  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  determine  what  the  general 
plan  is  to  be.  We  shall  apply  it  here  more  particularly  to 
high  school  government,  but  it  plays  an  important  part  in  school 
administration  as  a  whole.  We  have  seen  that  one  of  the  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  the  twentieth  century  high  school  is  to 
be  the  direction  from  which  aims  are  discovered  and  applied, — 
that  the  general  am  is  to  be  from  within.  This  will  be  the  more 
evident  and  significant  because  an  essential  part  of  the  high 
school  is  to  be  restored,12  so  that  there  will  be  more  freedom  to 
study  the  real  needs  and  relations  of  the  high  school  from  a 
view-point  within  the  school  itself.  In  the  general  policy  of 
the  school  there  is  to  be  less  passivity,  more  activity,  less  order- 
ing from  without,  more  ordering  from  within.     The  main  idea 

12  A  genuine  adolescent  curriculum  and  method.     See  Chapter  XXIII. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     437 

in  organization,  whether  for  administration  or  for  method,  is 
to  be  genuine  participation,  not  the  formal  participation  that  has 
so  often  satisfied.  The  principle  will  appear  first  and  centrally 
in  connection  with  curriculum,  study-content,  and  method  that 
make  a  very  impressive  part  of  high  school  environment 
through  which  pupils  are  inspired  with  ideals  of  government. 
These  factors  produce  many  of  the  best  opportunities  for  genu- 
ine participation.  Minds  well  occupied  with  productive  activi- 
ties under  the  stimulus  of  cooperation  best  learn  the  great 
principles  of  control. 

Participation  in  government. —  But  participation  must  ex- 
tend beyond  class-room  work.  The  pupil  is  to  participate,  and 
feel  the  necessity  and  value  of  his  contributions,  in  these  direc- 
tions. But  it  is  quite  as  essential  that  he  should  cultivate  the 
same  spirit  by  cooperating  in  the  government  and  general 
activities  of  the  school,  though,  as  already  shown,  government 
is  largely  settled  by  a  sound  organization  of  curriculum  and 
method  of  instruction.13  This  double  participation  supplies 
the  mainspring  of  social  ethics.  If  this  were  some  artificial 
scheme  to  be  fitted  over  or  into  high  school  life,  its  value  might 
be  doubted.  So  far  from  being  artificial,  it  is  suggested  by 
nature  herself  and  is  founded  on  very  obvious  principles.  In 
the  first  place  an  idea  becomes  strong  only  through  the  prin- 
ciple of  use,  through  doing.  Doing  is  never  sound  and  effica- 
cious till  the  moving  force  is  from  within.  The  direction  must 
be  from  within  outward.  The  plan  of  real  participation  in  the 
policies  and  activities  of  the  school  establishes  this  direction 
and  tends  to  make  the  organization  and  government  of  the 
school  issue  in  self-direction,  as  all  government,  to  have  any 
point,  must  issue.  Growing  motives  supplied  by  all  parts  of 
school  life  foster  the  idea. 

Cooperation  emphasized  by  the  psychology  of  adolescence. 
—  Again,  the  general  plan  is  suggested  and  enforced  by  prin- 
ciples of  adolescent  psychology.  The  high  school  pupil  has 
certain  well  marked  characteristics  which  commend  coopera- 
tion in  government.  He  likes  to  do  things,  likes  the  con- 
crete, likes  ideals  rather  than  rules,  related  facts  rather  than 
isolated  ones.     He  is  ready  to  participate,  to  organize  associa- 

13  This  includes  as  a  basal  element  the  personality  of  the  teacher. 


438 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


tions  for  association's  sake,  and  also  for  achieving  results  that 
give  prestige  and  importance  to  the  group.  He  has  learned,  or 
his  instinct  instructs  him,  to  subordinate  himself  to  the  group. 
All  this  is  due  to  his  social  feelings.  Later  he  grasps  the  idea 
intellectually  from  the  point  of  view  of  value  to  the  individual 
and  to  the  community.  Action  then  becomes  deliberative  rather 
than  instinctive.  In  the  adolescent  school  he  is  just  learning 
to  socialize  himself. 

Adolescence  is  also  the  period  for  relating  things.  Why 
confine  this  interest  to  relating  cause  and  effect  in  geology  and 
chemistry,  form  and  expression  in  language,  individual  and 
group  in  zoology,  and  other  similar  relations  ?  It  would  have 
even  more  legitimate  exercise  in  relating  the  various  acts  that 
make  up  conduct  to  principles,  motives  to  standards,  modes  of 
self  expression  to  ideals,  ideals  to  environment,  forms  and  facts 
of  government  to  the  informing  spirit  beneath  them  and  to 
their  appropriate  ends,  and  in  relating  self  through  all  these 
avenues  to  the  school-group  and  the  town-group, —  all  this 
under  the  inspiration  of  participation  in  a  great  enterprise. 
Practice,  i.  e.,  expression,  gives  meaning  to  every  idea  and  rela- 
tion, and  gives  skill  and  efficiency  in  executing  ideas.  There 
is  every  reason  why  the  adolescent  should  share  the  responsi- 
bility of  government  that  gives  practical  expression  to  all  the 
ideas  that  have  been  mentioned.  He  will  never  really  appre- 
ciate government  till  he  does.  He  is  fond  of  ideals,  which  are 
impelling  forces.  He  needs  to  do  something  with  his  ideals. 
Let  him  do  it  in  the  most  productive  enterprise  the  world 
knows,  government  that  issues  in  self-government.14 

Reasons  for  preferring  a  cooperative  plan  to  a  scheme  of 
self-government. —  The  adolescent  needs  scope,  but  at  the 
same  time  needs  wide  and  sympathetic  guidance.  Cooperation 
in  school  government  therefore  seems  more  reasonable  than  a 
scheme  of  pure  self-government,  and  it  is  along  this  line  that 
the  most  helpful  work  has  been  done  in  giving  the  secondary 

14  The  idea  is  not  a  new  one.  It  goes  back  to  the  great  school  of 
Trotzendorf  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  beyond  him  to  Vittorino's  wonderful 
school  in  the  early  Renaissance;  beyond  him,  in  a  way,  to  the  source  of 
modern  secondary  school  pedagogy,  Quintilian.  It  is  merely  a  revival 
through  the  inspiration  of  modern  pedagogy,  which  has  for  its  basis 
the  best  of  historical  pedagogy. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     439 

school  pupil  opportunities  to  express  himself  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  school.  To  place  pupil-government  wholly  in  the 
hands  of  the  pupils  themselves  would  take  away  one  of  the 
main  functions  of  the  school, —  that  of  suggestion,  of  guidance, 
of  efficient  influence  that  come  from  a  combination  of  the  two 
forces,  pupil  and  teacher.  Sharing  responsibility  and  initiative 
takes  school  government  out  of  the  realm  of  theory. 

The  late  nineteenth  century  began  to  see  some  attempts  to 
carry  out  the  principle  of  self-government.  The  School  City, 
the  Citizen-Tribune  plan,  and  other  similar  organizations  came 
into  notice  and  had  some  success.  But  they  were  top-heavy 
with  details  of  organization  too  complicated  for  general  adop- 
tion. Simpler  schemes  have  prevailed.  Many  schools  have 
been  successfully  carrying  out  the  principle  of  student-coopera- 
tion in  one  form  or  another.  The  principle  will  be  carried  out 
with  more  exact  appreciation  of  adolescent  nature,  and  hence 
with  better  adaptation  to  that  nature.  It  is  to  become  a  regu- 
lar policy,  rather  than  an  intermittent  one. 

Relations  of  cooperation  to  high  school  social  life. —  There 
are  in  the  high  school  special  groupings  and  associations 
that  have  been  non-scholastic,  extra-school  associations.  But 
under  twentieth  century  high  school  conditions,  with  the 
broader  interpretation  of  program  and  curriculum  and  the 
extended  daily  time  limits  of  school  life,  they  will  be  more 
closely  correlated  with  the  general  work  of  the  school.  They 
will  be  a  definite  agency  in  promoting  school  spirit  and  school 
activities.  These  associations  are  the  school  societies  of  all 
sorts  growing  out  of  the  new  development  of  the  social  instinct. 
Definitely  attached  to  the  school  program  in  its  wider  interpre- 
tation, under  sympathetic  guidance  and  training  that  give  a 
higher  freedom,  they  will  accomplish  two  far-reaching  pur- 
poses. First,  they  will  give  one  of  the  most  desirable,  because 
natural,  opportunities  for  cultivating  self  direction  and  co- 
operation in  forwarding  the  great  interests  of  the  school.  Such 
organizations  that  rise  from  the  natural  flowering  of  the  social 
instinct  will  give  a  zest  to  school  spirit,  and,  rightly  encouraged 
and  developed,  will  advance  important  school  movements  far 
beyond  bounds  that  could  be  reached  by  less  natural  agencies. 
Here  perhaps  lies  the  safest  and  soundest  solution  of  the  high 


440 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


school  social  problem  left  by  the  nineteenth  century.  The  first 
result  accomplished  carries  the  second  with  it.  The  adolescent 
may  be  occupied,  even  absorbed,  in  achievement  in  place  of  the 
vapid  interests  offered  by  high  school  "  society  "  life  when  no 
pains  were  taken  to  give  his  cravings  higher  exercise,  or  when 
the  pains  taken  took  a  non-adolescent  direction.  The  society 
idea  must  be  one  of  the  presuppositions  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury high  school.  It  readily  adapts  itself  to  cooperative  plans 
for  government,  and,  while  keeping  strictly  within  the  natural, 
healthful  interests  of  high  school  pupils,  may  be  brought  to  a 
higher  fruitage  in  making  the  social  side  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury high  school  worthy  of  the  school  and  its  opportunities. 

Cooperation  in  school  government  as  a  means  of  devel- 
oping interest  in  community  ideals. —  Power  as  it  slowly 
develops  in  the  adolescent's  life  should  overflow  into  commu- 
nity life.  This  gives  meaning  to  it  all,  and  so  appeals  to  the 
adolescent.  It  gives  relations,  and  so  again  appeals.  It  is  sug- 
gestive and  it  leads  to  great  wholes,  and  still  again  appeals. 
An  acquisition,  as  already  suggested,  is  never  complete  till  it 
has  expression.  Expression  is  never  complete  till  it  unites  the 
individual  to  the  world.  Failure  to  give  such  application  in 
school  life  brings  limitation  and  loss.  It  affects  the  whole 
personality.  The  physical  rebounds  to  great  ideals  equally 
with  the  psychical.  Adolescent  personality  owes  quite  as  much 
to  the  first  as  to  the  second. 

So  then  esthetic  ideals  attained  in  study  will  be  worked 
out  in  school  grounds  15  and  home  grounds,  school  walls  and 
home  walls,  school  order  and  home  order,  school  means  of 
esthetic  culture  and  home  means  of  esthetic  culture ;  and  to 
the  school  and  home  applications  will  be  added  applications  in 
wider  circles.  Literary  ideals  will  find  expression  in  the  owner- 
ship of  fine  books,  fine  inside  and  outside.  Civic  ideals  will  be 
applied  not  only  in  school  government,  but  in  civic  relations 
to  the  community.  Principles  of  science  will  be  applied  to 
bettering  school  equipment  and  school  hygiene,  and  will  find 
similar  expression  in  the  home  and  the  town.  Appreciation  of 
the  advantages  of  high  school  education  will  develop  interest 

15  The  school  environment  thus  may  be  made  a  distinct  means  of  de- 
veloping ideals. 


THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY  HIGH  SCHOOL     441 

and  stimulate  participation  in  high  school  extension  work.  All 
these  ideas  remain  in  large  degree  unknown  till  they  are  seen 
in  their  practical  relations.  They  are  not  realized  in  their  full 
meaning  till  they  have  the  larger  application  in  social  life.  The 
teacher's  function  does  not  end  with  teaching  his  subject.  He 
must  be  a  constant  stimulus  to  this  higher  education. 

Federation. —  So  far  we  have  considered  the  high  school 
individually.  But  high  schools  have  long  been  united  more  or 
less  loosely  in  associations,  and  have  been  influenced  by  com- 
mon standards.  There  are  two  conditions  for  securing  enter- 
prise and  progress,  whether  for  a  person  or  for  an  institu- 
tion,—  1,  individual  freedom  to  develop  initiative;  2,  coopera- 
tion that  secures  the  best  for  all.  But  this  cooperation  must  be 
of  a  type  that  stimulates  without  hampering  and  without  con- 
fining the  individual  to  the  pace  that  a  closely  centralized  system 
might  impose  on  the  whole  organization.  As  already  noted,  in 
the  early  history  of  the  high  school  customs  and  sentiments, 
methods  and  matter  were  imposed  from  above  and  by  associa- 
tions dominated  by  university  sentiment.  At  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  however,  a  certain  freedom  for  individual 
development  and  adaptation  had  been  attained.  There  had  also 
grown  up  a  kind  of  group  spirit,  an  indigenous  tendency  to 
develop  common  norms  and  standards  and  to  influence  as  many 
high  schools  as  possible  to  adopt  them.  .It  remains  for  the 
twentieth  century  to  develop  a  larger  power  of  association  that 
will  give  higher  and  broader  standards  and  a  more  stimulating 
unity,  but  at  the  same  time  conserve  individual  freedom.  This 
is  a  delicate  enterprise.  It  may  be  carried  out  by  federating 
local  associations  through  a  central  association  made  up  of  dele- 
gates from  the  local  bodies.  The  present  committee  on  the 
reorganization  of  secondary  education  is  a  step  in  this  direc- 
tion. Such  a  federation  would  develop  and  recommend  norms, 
methods,  and  general  guiding  principles,  and  would  encourage 
high  schools  in  all  sections  to  work  out  types  of  high  school 
education  adapted  to  particular  needs.  In  this  way  the  high 
school  would  maintain  and  utilize  the  best  ideals,  become  in  a 
way  a  clearing  house  for  both  individual  and  group  thinking, 
and  would  make  high  school  ideals  not  only  progressive  but 
effective. 


442  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Conclusion. —  Under  the  favorable  conditions  thus  sup- 
plied for  individual  initiative,  and  with  the  inspiration  and 
knowledge  that  come  from  association,  the  twentieth  century- 
high  school  is  to  study  its  obligations  and  opportunities  more 
intimately  and  intelligently  and  enter  upon  the  larger  mission 
that  such  a  study  will  suggest.  Its  work  is  not  to  be  play,  on 
the  one  hand,  nor  an  unwelcome  drudgery  on  the  other.  It 
is  not  to  be  a  luxury,  a  social  privilege,  but  a  democratic  neces- 
sity. It  will  not  be  characterized  as  abstract,  formal,  perfunc- 
tory, remote  and  out  of  touch  with  present  needs,  impractical. 
It  will  be  developmental  in  method,  cooperative  in  government, 
responsive  in  attitude,  cosmopolitan  in  study-opportunities,  uni- 
versal. It  will  be  a  real  initiation  into  the  choicest  treasures  of 
the  race, —  its  acquisitions,  its  satisfactions,  its  ambitions,  its 
opportunities,  its  ideals.  It  will  help  its  pupils  to  understand 
themselves  and  the  vocation  to  which  they  are  hastening ;  it  will 
develop  public  spirited  appreciation  of  others  and  a  generous 
spirit  of  cooperation.  The  adolescent  school  will  have  been 
restored.  It  will  assume  leadership  in  developing  community 
standards  and  ideals.  The  twentieth  century  high  school  with 
its  immense  possibilities  is  to  stand  out  as  an  embodiment  of 
the  most  inspiring  educational  ideal  of  the  ages.  It  will  hold 
the  most  important  place  not  only  in  perfecting  the  worker  for 
his  work,  but,  what  is  quite  as  important,  in  equipping  him  for 
the  more  profitable  employment  of  his  leisure. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  445 

Dill,  S.     Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire. 

London  and  N.  Y.,  1898. 
Dippold,  G.  T.     Great  Epics  of  Mediaeval  Germany.     Boston,  1898. 
Donatus.     Ars  Grammatica.     In  Corpus  Latinorum  Grarranaticorum  (ed. 

by  Lindemann),  Vol.  I. 
Drane,  A.  T.     Christian  Schools  and  Scholars.     Sketches  of  Education 

from  the   Christian  Era  to  the  Council  of  Trent.     London,   1867. 

Extracts  in  American  Jour,  of  Educ.  24:5isff,  337  ff. 

Eggleston,  E.  The  Transit  of  Civilization  from  England  to  America 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century.     N.  Y.,  1901. 

Eliot,  C.  W.  Changes  Needed  in  American  Secondary  Education. 
N.  Y.,  1916. 

Elyot,  T.  Boke  named  The  Governour.  London,  1880.  (Also  Every- 
man's Library,  N.  Y.) 

Farrar,  F.  W.     Lives  of  the  Fathers.     2  vols.     London  and  N.  Y.,  1907. 

Farrington  F.  E.     Secondary  School  System  of  France,  N.  Y.,  1907. 

Featherman,  A.  Social  History  of  the  Races  of  Mankind.  5  vols. 
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Fink,  K.  A  Brief  History  of  Mathematics,  tr.  by  W.  Wt.  Beman  and 
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Fisher,  G.  P.     Outlines  of  Universal  History.     N.  Y.,  1885. 

Flexner,  A.     A  Modern  School.     N.  Y.,  1916. 

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Fumivall,  F.  J.     Education  in  Early  England.     London,  1867. 

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442  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Conclusion. —  Under  the  favorable  conditions  thus  sup- 
plied for  individual  initiative,  and  with  the  inspiration  and 
knowledge  that  come  from  association,  the  twentieth  century- 
high  school  is  to  study  its  obligations  and  opportunities  more 
intimately  and  intelligently  and  enter  upon  the  larger  mission 
that  such  a  study  will  suggest.  Its  work  is  not  to  be  play,  on 
the  one  hand,  nor  an  unwelcome  drudgery  on  the  other.  It 
is  not  to  be  a  luxury,  a  social  privilege,  but  a  democratic  neces- 
sity. It  will  not  be  characterized  as  abstract,  formal,  perfunc- 
tory, remote  and  out  of  touch  with  present  needs,  impractical. 
It  will  be  developmental  in  method,  cooperative  in  government, 
responsive  in  attitude,  cosmopolitan  in  study-opportunities,  uni- 
versal. It  will  be  a  real  initiation  into  the  choicest  treasures  of 
the  race, —  its  acquisitions,  its  satisfactions,  its  ambitions,  its 
opportunities,  its  ideals.  It  will  help  its  pupils  to  understand 
themselves  and  the  vocation  to  which  they  are  hastening ;  it  will 
develop  public  spirited  appreciation  of  others  and  a  generous 
spirit  of  cooperation.  The  adolescent  school  will  have  been 
restored.  It  will  assume  leadership  in  developing  community 
standards  and  ideals.  The  twentieth  century  high  school  with 
its  immense  possibilities  is  to  stand  out  as  an  embodiment  of 
the  most  inspiring  educational  ideal  of  the  ages.  It  will  hold 
the  most  important  place  not  only  in  perfecting  the  worker  for 
his  work,  but,  what  is  quite  as  important,  in  equipping  him  for 
the  more  profitable  employment  of  his  leisure. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  445 

Dill,  S.     Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire. 

London  and  N.  Y.,  1898. 
Dippold,  G.  T.     Great  Epics  of  Mediaeval  Germany.     Boston,  1898. 
Donatus.     Ars  Grammatica.     In  Corpus  Latinorum  Grammaticorum  (ed. 

hy  Lindemann),  Vol.  I. 
Drane,  A.  T.     Christian  Schools  and  Scholars.     Sketches  of  Education 

from  the   Christian  Era  to  the  Council  of  Trent.     London,   1867. 

Extracts  in  American  Jour,  of  Educ.  24:515!?,  337  ff. 

Eggleston,  E.  The  Transit  of  Civilization  from  England  to  America 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century.     N.  Y.,  1901. 

Eliot,  C.  W.  Changes  Needed  in  American  Secondary  Education. 
N.  Y.,  1916. 

Elyot,  T.  Boke  named  The  Governour.  London,  1880.  (Also  Every- 
man's Library,  N.  Y.) 

Farrar,  F.  W.     Lives  of  the  Fathers.     2  vols.     London  and  N.  Y.,  1907. 

Farrington  F.  E.     Secondary  School  System  of  France,  N.  Y.,  1907. 

Featherman,  A.  Social  History  of  the  Races  of  Mankind.  5  vols. 
London,  1885-1891. 

Fink,  K.  A  Brief  History  of  Mathematics,  tr.  by  W.  Wv  Beman  and 
D.  E.  Smith.     N.  Y.,  1900. 

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Sturm,  J.  Directions  to  his  Teachers,  etc.  Amer.  Jour,  of  Educ. 
4 :  167  ff,  401  ff.  . 

Suetonius,  The  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,  ed.  by  C.  L.  Roth.  Leip- 
sic,   1875.     (Tr.  by  A.  Thomson.     N.  Y.,   1883.) 

Loci  clas.  Claud.  2  (Becker);  Tit.  3  (Smith);  Vesp.  18  (Monroe); 
Aug.  64  (Clarke  and  Monroe);  Gram  iff.  (Becker  and  Monroe);  9,  16, 
17   (Becker);   Rhet.    1    (Monroe);  2    (Becker). 

Swan,  C.  and  Hooper,  W.     Gesta  Romanorum.     London,  1904. 

Sydney,  W.  0.  England  and  the  English  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
2  vols.    N.  Y.,   1892-. 

Symonds,  J.  A.     Studies  in  the  Greek  Poets.    2  vols.    N.  Y.,  1880. 

Tacitus,  Agricola  and  Germania,  ed.  by  W.  S.  Tyler.     N.  Y.,  1874. 
Tacitus,    Dialogus   de  Oratoribus,   in   tr.   of   Tacitus'   Works.    2  vols. 

Bohn's  Library,   1889.  Loci  clas.  Agr.  4-5   (Clarke  and  Monroe);  De  Or. 
28-36    (Clarke  and  Monroe). 
Taylor,  H.  0.     Ancient  Ideals.    2  vols.     N.  Y.  and  London,  1896. 
Taylor,   H.   0.     Classical   Heritage   of  the   Middle   Ages.     N.   Y.   and 

London,   ion. 
Teuffel,    W.    S.    and    Schwabe,    L.    History    of    Roman    Literature. 

London,   1891-1900. 

Thomas,  Emily.  Roman  Life  under  the  Caesars.  N.  Y.  and  London, 
1899. 

Thucydides,  History  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  tr.  by  B.  Jowett.  2 
vols.     Oxford,    I90O.   Locus  Clas.   11:35-47    (Laurie  and  Monroe). 

Townsend,  W.  J.  The  Great  Schoolmen  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Lon- 
don,  1881.    Rev.  in  London  Quar.   Rev.  58:524ff. 

TJpanishads.     See  Miiller. 

Valerius  Maximus,  Factorum  et  Dictorum  Memorabilium  Libri  Novem. 

Locus  clas.  V:   4,  4   (Becker). 
Vedic  Hymns.     See  Miiller. 

Watson,  F.     English  Grammar  School  to  1660.     N.  Y.,  1908. 

West,  A.  F.  Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  the  Christian  Schools.  N.  Y., 
1892.  . 

White,  H.  The  Roman  History  of  Appian  of  Alexandria.  2  vols. 
N.  Y.  and  London,  1809. 

Wilson,  D.     Prehistoric  Man.     N.  Y.,  1865. 

Woodward,  W.  H.  Vittorino  da  Feltre  and  Other  Humanistic  Edu- 
cators.   N.  Y.,  1905. 

Yoder,  A.  H.  Changes  in  the  Proportion  of  the  Body  During 
Adolescence.    Jour,  of  Adolescence  1 :  243. 

Zend.  Avesta.     See  Darmesteter. 

Ziegler,  T.  Geschichte  der  Padagogik.  In  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs 
und  Unterrichtslehre  (Baumeister).    Miinchen,  1895. 


INDEX 


Roman  numerals  refer  to    chapters,  Arabic  to  pages. 


Academy,—  aim,  program,  meth- 
od, 328ff. ;  a  feeder,  330. 

Administration,— 77,  86,  g2i. ;  in 
20th  century  high  school,  423ft-, 
431  fT.,  435ft-  See  also  chapters 
on  primitive  times,  primitive 
tribes,  Greek  education,  Roman 
education,  etc. 

Adolescence,—  i3f-,  i9f-,  24,  441., 
55,  57ft.,  60,  64,  75f->  I05L,  125, 
1321.,  I49f.,  151,  3H,  367f-,  369ft-, 
411,    4i4ff.,    42 iff.,    424ft.,    431, 

Adolescent  School, —  See  Secon- 
dary School ;  Adolescent  School 
lost,  421ft.;  found,  423ft. 

Agricola, —  Some  of  his  educa- 
tional ideas,  264. 

Agricultural  High  School,— 338ft., 
390ft.,  42oi. 

Aims, —  see  Ideals;  _  see  also 
Graphic  Summary,  insert  oppo- 
site page  442. 

Alfred, —  educational  service,   197. 

Aristotle, —  compared  with  Plato, 
731. ;  aims,  program,  method, 
73ft.,  92ft.;  his  state,  92;  con- 
tributions, 74ft. 

Aryans, —  I4f-,   *9- 

Ascham, —  Method  in  language, 
267. 

Athletics,—  367ft. 

Beginner's  Latin  Book,  260,  276f. 
Buchanan, —  his     secondary     cur- 
riculum, 267. 

Capella, —  abstract  of  his  gram- 
mar, 206ft. 

Cassian  and  early  Monastic 
Schools, —  191  f. 

Cassiodorus'   School, — 191. 


Catechetical  School, —  187,  191. 

Cathedral  Schools,— 195,  268. 

Chantry  Schools, —  268. 

Charlemagne's  Service  to  Educa- 
tion,— 197. 

Cicero, —  compared  with  Quin- 
tilian,  129;  references  to  educa- 
tion, 161  f. 

Cities, —  their  growth  and  effect 
on  schools,  2i5f. 

City  School, —  growth,  aims,  pro- 
gram, and  method,  235ft.,  289; 
significance,  238L 

Civics, —  community   civics,  362. 

Co-education, —  8,  26,  54,  77,  81, 
83,  85,  89,  92,  104,  127,  i87f., 
223,  307L,  31  iff.,  427f. 

Colet's  School, —  266. 

College, —  origin  of,  223. 

Commercial  High  School  —  High 
School  of  Commerce, —  337f., 
384f. 

Compulsory  Education, —  in  early 
times,  85,  91,  93f. 

Cooperation  in  Government, — 
436ff. 

Curriculum, —  elementary  and  gen- 
eral, 9f.,  24ff.,  41,  42ff.,  49,  5i  ff-, 
56f.,  59f.,  80,  83f.,  95ff.,  I02ff., 
140,  I44ff.,  i87f.,  195,  236f.,  278, 
295,  327,  348f.,  412ft.,  422;  sec- 
ondary, I2f.,  26ff.,  29,  30f.,  33^., 
441.,  54,  56f.,  59f-,  65f.,  67f.,  7if-, 
74ff.,  79ff.,  84f.,  89ff.,  iosff., 
U5ff.,  122L,  125,  I26f.,  I3lf., 
133,  I40ff.,  i85ff.,  190,  191,  I96f., 
iggf.,  202f.,  2i8f.,  222,  224,  228, 
23iff.,  236ff.,  246f.,  252f.,  255ff., 
264ff.,  268ft.,  278.  282,  273ft.,  285, 
286ft.,  289,  290ft.,  295f.,  300ft., 
303,  305ff-,  324,  327,  329.  331,  333, 
334ft-,  337,  338ft.,  343ft.,  349ft., 
360ft.,  37 1  ft.,  377ft-     Typical  cur- 


453 


454 


INDEX 


ricula  of  different  types  of  high 
schools,  377ft.    Content,  40911. 

Degrees, —  221  f.,  228;  degrees  in 
"  grammar,"  222,  228. 

Democracy  in  Secondary  Educa- 
tion—308,  310,  355ft.,  426ft. 

Discipline, —  see   Government. 

Donatus,—  abstract  of  his  gram- 
mar, 2 1  off. 

Early  Christian  Centuries, — 
schools  of,  i8-}.ff.,  2141. ;  new 
ideals,  new  school-forms,  i&4ff. ; 
chief  characteristics  of  the 
period,  189.  See  also  Graphic 
Summary    (general). 

Education,  Science  of, —  73ft-, 
129ft.,  2991.,  3i4f- 

Eighteenth  Century  Secondary 
Education, —  285ft. 

Elective   Principle, —  318,  372'ff. 

Elementary  Education, —  91.,  ioff., 
I5ff.,  24ff.,  41,  42ff.,  49,  561.,  80, 
831.,  95ff.,  I02ff.,  140,  I44ff., 
1S7L,  195,  197,  2361,  327,  348f., 
412ft.;  a  rejuvenated  elementary 
school,  422.  See  also  Graphic 
Summary    (general). 

Elyot's    Secondary    School, —  2501 . 

Emancipation  of  Secondary 
School, —  352I 

"  Enlightenment,"  The, — 286ff.,  290, 

303- 

Episcopal  Schools, —  223f. 

Equipment  of  High  School, — 
433ff. 

Erasmus, —  some  of  liis  educa- 
tional ideas,  264. 

Evolution  of  Secondary  School, — 

343ff- 
Examinations     and     Examination 

Reform, —  221,  228,   4i7f. 
Extension  Work  of  High  School, 

431  f- 

Fathers,      Christian, —  educational 

views,  181  ff. 
Federation   of    Secondary    School 

Associations, —  441. 
Feltre,      da, —  typical      secondary 

school    of    Early    Renaissance, 

245 ff. ;    comparison   with    Quin- 

tilian,  249. 


Folk-lore  —  6f.,    isf.,    17,    23,    33, 

39,  52,  56,  105,  108,  109. 
Francke, —  influence     in     forming 

secondary   school   ideals, —  29of . 

For    realization   of    a   real   pro- 
gram see  Hecker. 
Fraternities,  High  School, —  305fv 

439f- 

Girls,  Education  of, —  77,  81,  83, 
85,  89,  104,  187L,  307 L,  311ft., 
427I.     See  also  Coeducation. 

Government, —  25,  88,  103,  135, 
^45,  147,  I49f-,  202,  204,  223, 
247f.,  259f.,  262,  305  f.,  435; 
cooperative  government,  436ft. 

Gradation, —  80,  83,  94L,  I39ff., 
228,  343,  423  ff. 

Grammar  School, —  114s.,  121, 
I29ff.,  I39ff.,  184,  i86f.,  190,  26S, 
280,  302,  323ff.,  378ff. 

Graphic  Summaries, —  Greek  qual- 
ities, 64f. ;  Greek  and  Roman 
qualities  compared,  ggft. ;  Ro- 
mans, early  and  late,  H2f. ;  evo- 
lution of  secondary  education, 
insert  facing  page  442.  See 
also  Secondary  Education  in 
Index  (end  of  topic). 

Greek, —  fixed  in  curriculum,  294f. 

Greek  Education, —  social  forces 
at  work,  educational  aims,  pro- 
grams, methods, —  early  period, 
48ft'.;  later  period,  61  ff.;  new 
teachers,  66f. ;  Greek  contribu- 
tions to  edcuation,  70.  See  also 
Graphic  Summary  (general). 

Greeks, — characteristics,  62ff.,64ff. ; 
compared  with  Romans,  ggi. 

Guarino, —  some  educational  ideas, 
249. 

Guidance,*  Vocational  and  Educa- 
tional,—  372L 

Guilds, —  216. 

Guild  Schools, —  237f.,  268. 

Gymnasium  (German), —  259,  295, 
301. 

Hecker, —  influence  toward  a  new 
secondary  school,  291. 

Hesiod, —  educational  ideas,  44,  47. 

High  School, —  302f.,  33iff. ;  dif- 
ferentiations, 3031. ;  ideals  and 
aims,  33if. ;  programs  of  studies 


INDEX 


455 


and  curricula,  331  f.,  333,  334.ff., 
377flf. ;  manual  training  high 
school,  336 ;  high  school  of  com- 
merce, 337f . ;  agricultural  high 
school,  338ff.,  425f. ;  method,  341 ; 
vassalage,  35of . ;  emancipation, 
352f. ;  problems  and  needs, 
353ff. ;  democratising  of  high 
school  education,  355ff. ;  <?of/i 
century  high  school,  409s. ;  /««- 
ior  /it'^/i  school,  424ft.,  431.  See 
also  Graphic  Summary  (gen- 
eral). 

Higher  Education, —  see  Univer- 
sity; also  pp.  303,  348fL 

Homeric  Age, —  political  organisa- 
tion, 391 . ;  educational  ideals, 
educational  forces,  curriculum 
and  method,  4off.  See  also 
Graphic  Summary  (general). 

Humanism, —  24off.,  250,  252ff. ; 
New  Humanism,  294;  Netver 
Humanism,  301. 

Hygiene, —  366? . ;  social  hygiene, 
personal  hygiene,  sex  hygiene, 
369ff- 

Ideals  and  Aims,—  8f.,  13,  2Sf.,  29, 
30f.,  40,  42,  5 if.,  56,  59*-.  62ff., 
65,  67,  71  f.,  74ff-  79f-,  821.,  88f., 
90,  93,  97 U  99ff.,  noff.,  Il2ff., 
i3of.,  I35f-.  I38£.,  i64ff.,  i69ff., 
i&of.,  i84f.,  189,  193,  198,  205, 
2i3f.,  2i9ff.,  2241.,  233ft.,  24off., 
2T45f.,  253ff.,  26off.,  264ff.,  282, 
283f.,  286ff.,  2931.,  296ff.,  3oof., 
305ff.,  308,  310,  3i4ff.,  327,  329, 
331,  333I-,  337*.,  343ff.,  347ff-, 
3S5ff.,  360,  303ff-,  4i4ff-.  423ff-, 
427,  432,  440.  See  also  Graphic 
Summary  (general). 

Initiation,—  13,  18,  191.,  26ff.,  33ff., 
55,  60,  1051.,  125,  205. 

Ipswich  School, —  266L 

Jesus  —  Teacher, —  i64ff. ;  funda- 
mental characteristics  of  his 
teaching,  166;  principles,  teach- 
ing qualities,  objective  teaching, 
i67ff. 

Junior  High  School, —  424f.,  428, 
431. 

Latin, —  fixed    in    secondary    cur- 


riculum, 252  ff.,  258,  260,  2*66  and 
XVI  generally,  274f.,  285;  meth- 
od, 119L,  124,  I44ff.,  163,  188, 
I90f.,  20off.,  204,  22of.,  223,  225, 
231  f.,  247f.,  250,  253f.,  258,  26off., 
264ff.,  268ff.,  274ff.,  282f.,  285 f., 
3i6f.,  410,  414. 

Leibnitz, —  nezv  curriculum,  289. 

Lily, —  Latin  grammar,  271  f. 

Linguistics, —  rise  and  predomi- 
nance, 67,  1141.,  n6ff.,  119L,  122, 
I3if.,  I39ff.     See  also  410,  4i3f. 

Luther, —  educational  ideas,  264L 

Lycees, —  291,  302. 

Manual  Arts, —  291,  302,  334^. 
Manual  Training  High   School, — 

334ff. 

Mathematics, —  enlarged  in  secon- 
dary curriculum,  235,  236L,  275, 
289ff.,  301. 

Mediaeval  Secondary  Education, — 
ideals,  programs,  methods,  serv- 
ice, I93ff. ;  a  new  school,  194L 
See  also  Graphic  Summary 
(general). 

Method, —  general,  ioff.,  isff.,  24ft., 
31,  42ff.,  53,  57,  65L,  79,  89,  94, 
95f.,  I03ff.,  i69ff.,  i88ff.,  2ooff. ; 
elementary,  ioff.,  isff.,  25,  42ff., 
53,  57,  9i,  95f-,  iQ3ff.,  I44ff.; 
secondary,  iof.,  I2ff.,  18,  26ff., 
31,  33ff.,  42ff.,  44f.,  S4L,  S7f.,  60, 
651.,  68f.,  71  f.,  74ff.,  77,  79,  84ft., 
89,  90,  97,  105ft".,  ngff.,  125,  i27f., 
132L,  i34ff-,  I47ff-,  168,  169m, 
I79ff.,   i8of.,   i88f.,   i9of.,  2ooff., 

202f.,      220f.,      223f.,      225,      228f., 

23 if.,  238,  247L,  256ff.,  26off., 
264ff.,  269ff.,  274,  275  f.,  282, 
28sflF.,  298,  299f.,  3i6flf.,  324f., 
329L,  341,.  346L,  351,  363,  366f., 
370L,  409m,  414ft.,  425,  433f- 
See  also  Graphic  Summary  (gen- 
eral). 

Monastic  Orders, —  194,  206. 

Monastic  Schools, —  I94ff.,  223, 
268. 

Moral  Education, — 103,  118,  141, 
147,  149,  419. 

Navajo  School, —  36. 
Neander, —  some  of  his  ideas  as  to 
education,  265L 


456 


INDEX 


Nineteenth  Century  Secondary 
Education, —  293 ff. ;  political  so- 
cial, and  religious  influences 
affecting  education,  293L ;  ideals, 
2Q3i.,  296ff.,  3i4ff. ;  progress  of 
studies,  295 f.,  303;  the  High 
School,  302ff. ;  new  phases  of 
school  life,  305ft1. ;  high  school 
social  life,  305ft.;  universal  sec- 
ondary education,  308,  310, 
(355ff-)  '<  secondary  school  col- 
lege relations,  309;  needs,  311, 
32if. ;  method,  3i6ff. ;  secondary 
school  principles,  3i8f. ;  a  secon- 
dary school  philosophy,  3i8f. ; 
training  for  secondary  school 
teachers,  3i9ff. ;  outlook  and 
problems,  353ft. ;  no  settled  type, 
355  J  typical  high  school  curricula 
and  programs  of  studies,  377R. 
See  also  Graphic  Summary 
(general). 


Oratory, —  65ft.,  Ii4ff.,  136. 

Orders,  Religious, —  194,  206. 

Organization, —  see  Administra- 
tion. See  generally  chapters  on 
secondary  education  of  the  dif- 
ferent periods. 

Origen's   School, — 191. 


Philosophy,  Schools  of, —  68f. 

Physical  Education, — 10,  13,  24, 
27f,.  44f.,  52,  54f.,  59,  62,  74,  83f., 
85,  94,  96,  iosf.,  118,  144,  146, 
363ff. 

Plato, —  compared  with  Aristotle, 
73L;  educational  principles  and 
educational  forms,  73ff. ;  his 
state,  78f.,  8if. ;  contributions, 
74ff- 

Play,— 83f.,  91,  95,  105,  3o6f., 
367ff. 

Popular  Education, —  see  Puhlic 
Education;  "popular"  secon- 
dary school,  327. 

Preparatory  School,  ("feeder"  of 
the  University), —  220,  230, 
278f.,  309,  324,  330,  332,  35off., 
420,  422 ;  changes  in  relations  of 
secondary  school  to  university, 
309,  352f.,  420,  422. 


Primitive  School, —  gi.,  itf.,  15ft., 
26ff.,  3off.,  33ff.  See  also  Graph- 
ic Summary  (general). 

Primitive  Times, —  social  organi- 
sation, ideals,  acquisitions,  edu- 
cation, iff. 

Primitive  Tribes  To-day, —  social 
organisation,  ideals,  acquisitions, 
education,  2iff. 

Professional  Training  for  Teach- 
ers—312,  3i9ff.,  333,  415,  419, 
424L,  434. 

Programs  of  Studies, —  9f.,  I2ff., 
30L,  428.,  56f.,  70,  87f.,  98,  108, 
I23ff.,  i4off.,  163,  i85ff.,  190ft'., 
203f.,  224,  236ft.,  246ft.,  250, 
256ft.,  264ft.,  274,  289ft.,  295 f., 
300ft.,  324,  327,  329L,  333ft., 
347ff-,  36off.,  371ft,  377^. 

Public  Education, —  11,  i6f.,  26f., 
31  f.,  33tt;  42ff.,  45,  78ff.,  81,  86, 
91  ft.,  137,  235 f.,  263.  309ft.,  33i ft. 

Public  Schools, —  see  Public  Edu- 
cation. "  Great  Public  Schools," 
"Grammar  Schools"  {Eng- 
land), 121,  139,  280,  302. 

Quintilian, —  aims,  principles,  pro- 
gram of  studies,  method  in  his 
secondary  school  (grammar 
school),  129ft.;  his  school  the 
model  for  future  secondary 
schools,  I37f. 

Rabelais, —  some  educational  ideas, 
265. 

Realschule, —  291. 

Renaissance  Secondary  Education, 
—  ideals,  programs  of  studies, 
methods, —  early,  240ft. ;  later, 
252ft. ;  spread  of  education, 
279ft. ;  Renaissance  contribu- 
tions to  education,  273ft. ;  state 
schools,  263.  See  also  Graphic 
Summary  (general). 

Renaissance  Educators, —  245ft., 
249f.,  254ft.,  260ft.,  264ft. 

Rhetoric,    Schools   of, —  67,    122. 

Revaluation  of  Studies, —  377ff.; 
content-pedagogy,  409ft. 

Ritteracademie, —  2891. 

Roman  Education, —  ideals,  curric- 
ula, methods, —  early,  99  ft.; 
later,   noff. ;   Roman   Grammar 


INDEX 


457 


School  a  ruling  type  of  secon- 
dary education,  i37f . ;  decay, 
164.  See  also  Graphic  Sum- 
mary (general). 
Romans, —  qualities  of,  etc.,  99fT., 
1121. 

St.  Paul's  School,— 266,  268. 

Scholarship, —  idea  emphasised  by 
early  universities,  231. 

Science, —  fixed  in  curriculum, 
286ff.,  2g6i.,  298,  301 ;  conf.  411. 

Science  of  Education, —  73ff., 
i2off.,  2991.,  314L 

Secondary  Education, —  primitive 
times,  9ff.,  I2ff.,  18;  primitive 
tribes  to-day,  26ff. ;  primitive 
compared  with  modern,  2gi. ; 
Homeric,  4iff. ;  early  Greek, 
54ff. ;  later  Greek,  6$&. ;  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  8off.,  §4ff.,  971 . ; 
early  Roman,  io$ff. ;  later  Ro- 
man, 1  T4fif. ;  Cicero  and  Quintil- 
ian,  i4off.,  I47ff. ;  early  Chris- 
tian, iS6ff. ;  mediaeval,  I94ff . ; 
early  university  period,  217ft., 
222ff.,  230;  early  Renaissance, 
245ff. ;  late  Renaissance,  252ff. ; 
(rapid  growth  of  secondary 
schools  in  Renaissance,  279ft.)  ', 
17th  and  18 th  centuries,  285fT. ; 
19th  century,  293ff. ;  the  High 
School,  302ff.,  323ff. ;  evolution 
of  secondary  school,  343ff. ; 
changing  status  of  secondary 
school,  347ff. ;  20th  century  prob- 
lems, 353ff. ;  20th  Century  High 
School,  359ff.,  409ff.,  421ft.; 
graphic  summaries  91.,  301., 
42ff.,  s6ff.,  70,  87f.,  98,  108,  I23fif., 
i6iff.,  i9off.,  203f.,  224f.,  246ff., 
256ff. ;  also  graphic  summaries 
in  insert  opposite  page  442. 

Secondary  School, —  model  form 
early  established,  I37f. ;  differ- 
entiations, 303,  333ff.,  (see  also 
all  references  under  Secondary 
Education)  ;  position  in  an  edu- 
cational system  historically  and 
naturally,  347ff.,  359f.  See  also 
graphic  summaries  under  Secon- 
dary Education. 

Semler, —  influence  toward  a  new 
secondary  school,  291. 


Seventeenth-Eighteenth  Century 
Secondary  School, —  ideals,  pro- 
gram, method,  new  leaders, 
growth  in  different  countries, 
28sff.  See  also  Graphic  Sum- 
mary   (general). 

Six- Year    High    School, —  423ff. 

Social  Hygiene,  Sex  Hygiene, — 
369ff. 

Social  Studies, —  history,  geogra- 
phy, science,  etc.,  286ff.,  29off., 
301.  See  generally  XVIII, 
XIX. 

State  Schools, —  263,  309ff.,  396ff. 
See  also  Public  Education. 

Status  of  Secondary  School, —  its 
evolution,  relation  of  secondary 
school  to  university,  278,  318, 
347ff.,  359U  420,  42 iff. 

Studies, —  see  Curriculum;  content 
of  studies  the  supreme  concern, 
409ff. 

Sturm, —  his  secondary  school, 
255ff. ;  comparison  with  Quin- 
tilian  and  Da  Felt-re,  259;  his 
school  a  culmination,  its  influ- 
ence, 255,  259,  282f. ;  other  ideals 
of  the  period,  2ooff. 

Supervision, —  20th  century  high 
school,  435. 

Sylvius, — 1 249. 

Teachers, —  n,  14,  i6ff.,  25f.,  33fF., 
42I,  45,  54f-»  57,  59f-,  66,  71  f., 
76,  89,  91,  104,  106,  119,  134, 
149,  i64ff.,  186,  188,  I94f.,  223, 
24Sff.,  254ff.,  26off.,  263,  3i9ff., 
415,  418,  424f.,  434;  central  qual- 
ities, 415,  419,  424f.,  434.  See 
also  Graphic  Summary  (gen- 
eral). 

Terminology, —  new,  more  scienti- 
fic, 304f .,  376. 

Text-books, —  mediceval,  I99f  •, 

2o6ff. ;  origin  of  modern  idea 
of  text-book,  228;  typical  Re- 
naissance text-books,  268ff. ; 
new  text-books,  276~f.,  288; 
20th  century  text-books,  41  if. 
See  also  chapters  on  secondary 
school  of  different  periods. 

Thoroughness, —  different  types, — 
363. 


458 


INDEX 


Township    High    School,—  392ff., 

431. 
Training  for  Secondary  Teaching, 

—  3iQff.,  415,  424*-.  434-. 
Trotzendorf, —  some  of  his  educa- 
tional ideas,  265. 

Twentieth   Century  High   School, 

—  ideals  and  aims,  360,  363ff. ; 
program  of  studies,  360ft.,  37irf-» 
374ff.,  377ff-,  409ff-  i  method, 
362L,  366f.,  409ff-,  4i4ffv  424ff-, 
434;  vocational  idea,  3031E. ; 
physical  education,  personal  hy- 
giene, 363-  365ff->  36off- ;  o'A- 
letics,  367ft.;  election,  educa- 
tional guidance,  372,  375f. ;  vo- 
cational guidance,  372f-',  reval- 
uation of  studies,  373ft. ;  reform 
in  terminology,  376,  (see  also 
3041.)  ;  inheritances  and  prob- 
lems, 3761. ;  typical  curricula, 
377ft.;  study-content  (basal  ele- 
ment of  method),  4ogff. ;  teach- 
ers, 4241.,  434;  examinations, 
4171. ;  adolescent  school  lost  — 
found,  421ft. ;  six-year  high 
school,  423ff. ;  junior  and  senior 
high  schools,  4241.,  431 ;  organi- 
sation of  high  school  education, 
424ft. ;  concentration  —  univer- 
sity of  high  schools,  426ft.;  co- 
education, 427f. ;  township  high 
school,  431 ;  extension  work, 
43if. ;  continuous  sessions,  432; 
universal  high  school  education, 
432;  equipment,  433ft- ;  sex  dis- 
tribution of  teachers,  434L;  su- 
pervision, 435 ;  administration, 
435ft. ;   cooperative  government, 


437ft. ;  federation,  441.    See  also 
Graphic  Summary   (general). 

Universal  Secondary  Education, — 

308,  310,  355ff-,  432f- 

United  States, —  educational  devel- 
opment, 323ft. ;  the  Grammar 
School,  323ff.  (o  "feeder,"  324)  ; 
"popular"  secondary  school, 
327L;  the  Academy,  328ff.  (a 
"  feeder','  330)  ;  the  High 
School,  331  ff.  (o  "feeder," 
332)  ;  growth  of  the  High 
School,  332ft. ;  differentiations, 
333ft. ;  Manual  Training  High 
School,  336;  High  School  of 
Commerce,  337i. ;  Agricultural 
High  School,  338flf. ;  20th  Cen- 
tury High  School,  359ft- 

University, —  origin  and  rise  of, 
213ft. ;  reviving  scholarship, 
2i4f.,  218;  secondary  education 
in  the  university,  2iof.,  223f. ; 
admission,  2iof. ;  preparatory 
school,  220,  230;  aims,  curricu- 
lum, method,  equipment,  2i8ff. ; 
degrees,  22if.,  228;  general  edu- 
cational conditions  of  period, 
2Z6f. ;  contributions  of  period, 
227ft.  See  also  Graphic  Sum- 
mary (general). 

University  of  High  Schools  — 
426,  42Qff. 

Vassalage  of  Secondary  School, — 
35if. ;   emancipation,  35*2^ 

Vocational  Idea,— 303,  363ft-. 
386ff.,  422,  42off.;  a  study  of  vo- 
cations, 372f. 

Vocational    High    School,— 302f., 

333ff-,  343,  385ff-,  429ft- 


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